Peter the Great reforms - Иностранные языки и языкознание курсовая работа

Biography of life of Peter Great, his childhood and late years. The reasons and preconditions of reforms of Peter in different spheres of the state. The characteristic of reforms, their value for history of Russia. Estimation of efficiency of reforms.


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Undoubtedly that a fundamental reform in sphere of economy was carried out during the reign of Peter the First. By typical opinion of historians, industry and trade were on the second place after army for Peter and his activity as a reformer was notable for large scale and foresight. Industrial building of Peter's epoch was proceeding at an unprecedented pace for that time: not less two hundred manufactories of different profiles appeared from 1695 till 1725 and that was ten times more than at the end of XVII century, and there was more impressionable growth of total volume of output as well. 1 Богословский М.М. Петр Великий. - М., 1956. - с. 281.
Peter was aware that the internal economy of Russia needed reforming. His travels abroad had convinced Peter that Russia was too backward. As tsar he wanted to apply western mercantilism to stimulate agriculture, industry and commerce. A richer Russia could only benefit the position of the tsar as more could be taxed and invested into the military. A further strengthened military would further enhance his power. In fact, Peter achieved less than he would have liked to but he did quick start the economic growth of Russia that was witnessed in the Eighteenth Century. 2 http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/peter_the_great2.htm
The state dominated all forms of industry. The state combined creation of its own industry with organization of its own trade - mainly to get profit from popular goods inside the country and to import such goods, which could bring money to the state to purchase ships, weapon, raw materials, equipment for industry.
The state captured trade by the most primitive, but very effective way - introducing monopoly for purchase and sale of some goods both inside the country and outside it.
The first monopoly was monopoly for salt. The decree of the first of January 1705 proclaimed that everyone to the treasury could supply salt, the treasury would sell it at price two times more or the treasury might let one or some merchants to sell salt. 3 Павленко Н.И. Торгово-промышленная политика правительства России в первой четверти XVIII века. // История СССР., 1978, №3. - с. 159.
Monopoly for sale of goods had particular importance. The introduction of prohibited goods also practiced in XVII century, but it had just huge scales during Peter's time, it enveloped almost all kinds of goods which Russian merchants sold to foreigners in Archangelsk and brought abroad through other ports and towns. Among such goods taken in the treasury's sale there were: hemp, linen, linen seeds, bread, bristle, pitch, potash, caviar and isinglass, wood, chamois leather, rhubarb, fat, wax, sailcloth, iron. 4 Спиридонова Е.В. Экономическая политика и экономические взгляды Петра I. - М., 1952. - с. 276.
In 1718, two colleges were created for commerce and mines and manufacturing. Under state direction, factories of all types were developed.
Prices were fixed by the state and the state had the right to be the first purchaser from the producers - but at a price fixed by the state. Private businesses could make a profit only on the surplus of produce which the state did not want and many successful enterprises were simply taken over by the state. 5 http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/peter_the_great2.htm
5.1 Peter the Great's Reforms - Monetary
The monetary reform was aimed at creating the monetary system that would satisfy political and economic conditions of the new era. This reform began in 1698 and has become one of the first large-scale reforms carried out by Peter the Great. To a certain extent that reform laid the foundation for many other reforms and developments since it regulated rather chaotic and archaic monetary system that existed in Russia in the 17th century and provided an opportunity to increase state income ensuring growing cost of the Northern War. The reform started when the weight of an old silver kopeck was diminished in 1698 and new small copper coins, mites, half-mites and dengi, were introduced into circulation in 1700. http://www.goznak.ru/eng/site.shtml?id=125 In the course of the reform a flexible system of nominals was introduced. It included golden coins (a 10-roubles coin (“chervonets”), since 1718 a two-roubles coin); siver coins (a rouble coin, half a rouble coin (“poltina”), quarter a rouble coin (“polupoltina”), a 10-copecks coin (“grivennik”), a 3-copecks coin (“altyn”); copper coins (a 5-copecks coin (“pyatak”), a 1-copeck coin (“kopeika”) and fractions of a copeek).After that silver and gold coins of the new design were put into circulation while pre-reform coins continued to be minted in limited numbers until 1718. The correlation between coins made of different metals were strictly defined and for the first time in international practice the basis of the monetary system was the decimal system (1 rouble was equal to 100 kopecks). The new Encyclopжdia. Britannica. Volume 25.1994
Peter the Great paid special attention to the technical improvement of coinage. A coin is one of the major elements of the state power and the quality of its technical and artistic performance has always had an impact on prestige of this or that state abroad. However, the level of coinage in Russia in the XVIIth century was far behind the European level. During his trip to Europe, Peter the Great paid a special visit to the London Mint, where he carefully studied details of the coinage process. And it was then that Peter the Great ordered to purchase spindle presses for stamping coins in Russia.
A significant result of the monetary reform of Peter I in the 18th century became an introduction in Russia to the new cultural custom of rewarding decorative and issuing commemorative medals. During the first period of work of the Kadashevskiy mint, apart from the first gold and silver coins, the first Russian medals were minted. Assimilation of the new European custom was helped by the old Russian tradition of the pre-Peters time to decorate warriors with conferred golden coins. The first decorative medals were minted for the participants in the victorious battles of the Russian army. Searching to inform Europe of the Russian victories, Peter I commissioned a famous medallier from Augsburg F.G.Mueller to create a series of commemorative medals devoted to the defeat of Sweden in the Northern War. http://www.hermitage.ru/html_En/04/b2003/hm4_1_f.html
The state dominated all forms of industry. It combined creation of its own industry with organization of its own trade mainly to get profit from popular goods inside the country and to import such goods, which could bring money to the state to purchase ships, weapon, raw materials, and equipment for industry.
The monetary reform was aimed at creating the monetary system that would satisfy political and economic conditions of the new era.
Peter the Great's military reforms massively modernized Russia's Army and Navy. By his death in 1725, Russia's military was a force to be reckoned with. These reforms supplemented the reforms that were going on at a general domestic level.
The Russia army was both enlarged and made into a professional unit by Peter the Great. Peter had a very clear idea about the direction of his foreign policy and he needed a strong army to execute this. A strong army would also make his own position much stronger and free him from the threat of coups.
Before the rule of Peter the Great, the Russian army had been amateur. It was basically based on villagers going into battle to defend the Motherland, lead by village elders with no or little knowledge about military leadership. There were some professionals in the army but they were few and far between. The Streltsy and the Cossacks were professional units but they were officered by foreigners.
Peter the Great took the bets parts of both systems and introduced a standing army in 1699. All soldiers received similar training so that the army had uniformity. The Streltsy was abolished. Peter the Great had hated it ever since it had backed a joint rule between Peter and Ivan. Two new elite Guards regiments were created - the Preobrazhenskii and the Semeovskii. These were officered by elite. From 1705 on, both nobles and serfs could be conscripted for life long service in the army. By 1725, Russia had 130,000 men in the army. Discipline was savage but by the death of Peter, the army was up to European standards though untested in Western Europe.
The navy was essentially Peter the Great's creation. The navy was based on the moth of the River Don and then expanded to the Baltic Sea. As Russia lacked the necessary expertise, Peter the Great brought in foreign experts and by 1725, Russia had 48 ships of the line and 800 galleys. The officers in the navy were foreign but the crews were Russian.
The Russian Navy defeated Sweden's navy under Charles XII and its potential for success sufficiently alarmed George I of Britain. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/peter_the_great1.htm
Military expenditure was high but it was met out of direct taxation. Revenue was expanded three times to pay for the military and wars. 85% of royal income was taken up in this way. Direct taxation was levied on households but this could be avoided by a number of houses grouping together as one `house' and therefore paying the demands of just one house. Thus, the collected revenue did not keep up with the growth in population and therefore the growth in required houses.
In November 1718, Peter the Great introduced a soul tax on all males (except the clergy and nobility) with the Old Believers paying double. Peter the Great, as with the overthrown Golitisin, saw the Old Believers as a throw back to a time in Russia Peter wanted to move on from.
If a male from a village took flight to avoid paying the tax, the village itself had to make up the loss. Therefore, neighbors had a very good reason to keep a close eye on the whereabouts of a male neighbor when the soul tax was due for collection. It became the army's responsibility to compile a list of all males in Russia. This was such a vast task, that it was not completed until 1724.
Military reforms were also financed by indirect taxes on beards, horse-collars, bee-hives etc. Royal monopolies were farmed out. Peter the Great, it seemed, would do anything to raise the necessary capital to finance his military reforms. Алексин А.Г., Жаркова Л.М. «Что такое? Кто такой?» М., «Педагогика - Пресс» 1993. - с 384.
Peter established a regular army on completely modern lines for Russia in the place of the unreliable streltsy and the militia of the gentry. Service was for life. The troops were equipped with flintlock firearms and bayonets of Russian make; uniforms were provided; and regular drilling was introduced. The Army Regulations of 1716 were particularly important. For the navy, Peter's reign saw the construction, within a few years, of 52 battleships and hundreds of galleys and other craft; thus a powerful Baltic fleet was brought into being. Several special schools prepared their pupils for military or naval service and finally enabled Peter to dispense with foreign experts.
7. Peter the Great's Reforms - Religion
Eastern Orthodoxy and the power of the church had long played an important role of authority in Russia. The Orthodox Church was, by Peter the Great's decree, suddenly under government supervision by the appointment of the so-called Chief Procurator, who was a secular representative of the government within the Church.
In 1700, the head of the church, Patriarch Adrian, died. Peter did not replace him. In 1701, the control of church property was handed over to a government department called the Monastyrskii Prikaz. This received monastic revenues and paid monks a salary. The simple fact that it was a government department meant that it was subordinate to the will of Peter. In 1721, the church hierarchy was officially abolished by the Ecclesiastical Reservation and the church was placed under the control of the Holy Synod and was fully linked to the state. The 1721 Regulation specifically stated what the clergy could do; in essence, it was designed to control their daily life so that they became an apparatus of the state. The task of the clergy was seen as two-fold: to work for the state and to make their congregations totally submissive to the state by convincing them that Peter was all but God-like to ensure the population of Russia's total subordination to the crown. 1 http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/peter_the_great2.htm
Previously, the Russian Tsars had exerted some influence on church operations; however, until Peter's reforms the church had been relatively free in its internal governance. Following the model of the Byzantine Empire, the Tsar was considered to be the "Defender of Orthodoxy". In this capacity he had the right of veto over the election of new bishops, and upon the consecration of new bishops he would often be the one to present the crozier to them. The Tsar would also be involved in major ecclesiastical decisions.
During this time, the church lost much of its landed wealth, and a system of clerical education was established for the first time in Russia. Tsar Peter inflicted numerous reforms on his country with the help of Archbishop Theophan Prokopovich, Peter's ally in his reform of the Russian Orthodox Church. The reforms were designed to create and pay for a new government and a military and naval system that would enable Russia to trade with, compete with, and, as necessary defend Russia's European interests by force of arms. The ruthlessness with which he implemented his governmental and tax collection reforms, and the forced buildup of his new capital city, St. Petersburg, augured poorly for the independence of the church.
The Russian patriarchate was not restored until Tsar Nicholas II gave his permission for the calling on an All-Russian Sobor (Council) for the purpose of electing a new patriarch. Plans for the Sobor were made before the February Revolution and the Tsar's subsequent abdication on 15 March of that year. However, the assembly met despite the onset of the revolution, and on 21 June 1917, the Sobor elected St. Tikhon as Patriarch of Moscow. А.Г.Алексин, Л.М.Жаркова «Что такое Кто такой» М., Издательство «Педагогика - Пресс» 1993год.383 стр
Monasteries lost territory and were more closely regulated, resulting in a reduction in monks and nuns numbers from twenty-five thousand in 1734 to fourteen thousand in 1738.
A new ecclesiastic educational system was begun under Peter the Great and expanded to the point that by the end of the century there was a seminary in each eparchy. The result was that more monks and priests were formally educated than before, but their training was poor preparation for their ministry to a Russian-speaking population steeped in the traditions of Eastern Orthodoxy. Catherine even saw that the salaries of all ranks of the clergy were paid not through the church but by the state, with the result that the clergy became effectively employees of the state. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/peter_the_great3.htm
In 1701, the control of church property was handed over to a government department called the Monastyrskii Prikaz. Th church was placed under the control of the Holy Synod and was fully linked to the state. During this time, the church lost much of its landed wealth, and a system of clerical education was established for the first time in Russia. Monasteries lost territory and were more closely regulated.
8. Cultural and Educational Measures
8.1 Peter the Great's Reforms - Education
Education also had to be modernized if Russia was going to survive as a power in Europe. Peter wanted a modern army and navy that would be feared throughout Europe. The officers in the military had to be educated or this would never be achieved. While on his travels as a youth, Peter had seen the importance of the knowledge of science and maths for military success. The correct use of artillery needed knowledge of angles; the building of fortifications needed knowledge of engineering. Naval officers needed to know how to navigate.
In addition, Peter decided that all of the children of the nobility should have some early education, especially in the areas of sciences. Therefore, on February 28th 1714, he introduced the decree on compulsory education which dictated that all Russian children of the nobility, of government clerks and even lesser ranked officials between the ages of 10 and 15 must learn basic mathematics and geometry and that they should be tested on it at the end of their studies.
In 1701, the School of Navigation and Maths was founded in Moscow. This was run by British teachers. In the same year, similar schools were created for artillery and languages. In 1707, a School of Medicine was created and in 1712 a School of Engineering. Thirty maths schools were created in the provinces and in 1724; a School of Science was established though the lack of scientists in Russia meant that it had to be initially staffed by foreigners. Many young noblemen were encouraged to do as Peter had done - go to Western Europe and experience what it was like and also learn. They were encouraged to learn about the latest technology, economic theory and political science. He believed that these young educated noblemen were of great benefit to Russia's development. The new Encyclopжdia. Britannica. Volume 25. 1994. 724 pages
8.2 Peter the Great's Reforms - Culture
Peter I ordered to all his boyars to cut their beards. Then he applied the same law to all the men in the kingdom, except the clergy (Decree on Shaving, 1705). For those who refused, the tzar fixed a fee. (Appendix 9) He also decided upon the clothes that the Russians were to wear (the Decree on Western Dress, 1701), inspiring from the French, Saxon, or German fashion; another fee was fixed for those who would not obey. People complained that the new clothing style was not suitable for the harsh weather in Russia.
Another major change would come with the reformation of the calendar. He didn't go as far as changing to the Gregorian calendar, because it was the one used in Rome, and it was not appropriate for a Christian Orthodox country like Russia; however, he adopted the Julian calendar, which had a delay of 11 days (the change to the Gregorian calendar will only take place on February 1st, 1918, by the USSR government). So he decided that on January 1st, 1700, people should ornate the gates of their houses and take part at the Church masses. The population was more confused than troubled.
A newspaper the "Vedomosti" was established for the educated public in 1703. In this year the new alphabet was created. It was issued by the state. Peter believed that military leaders had to be educated but that a loyal public should also be if Russia was to shake off its reputation of being steeped in medievalism. 2 http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Peter1-Rus.html
On February 28th 1714, Peter the Great introduced the decree on compulsory education. In 1701, the School of Navigation and Maths was founded in Moscow. In 1707, a School of Medicine was created and in 1712 a School of Engineering. Thirty maths schools were created. Peter did many useful things for the culture of his country.
He ordered to all his boyars to cut their beards. He also changed the type of clothes of the Russians. For the educated Public a newspaper “Vedomosti” was established. In the year 1703 the new alphabet was created. The major change came with the reformation of the calendar, when he adopted the Julian calendar.
9. How Effective were These Reforms?
In theory they were major achievements. Russia, pre-Peter, had a backward and barely functioning structure of government. Peter attacked this as he believed it hindered Russia's progress and modernisation. However, by 1725, little had changed. Why was this? Peter had to take some of the blame here. He was an autocrat and he believed that everything should go through him. He was unwilling to delegate and allow people to take a final decision. He stifled initiative and such was his reputation, everybody worked in the way Peter wanted them to work. Few had the courage to buck the system in case they incurred the well-known wrath of the tsar. Another major failing was that once an order had been issued by Peter, no-one evaluated whether that order had been carried out and if it had, to what extent it was successful. It was assumed that if an order came from Peter it would be carried out and that it would be carried out well.
Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, way of life and customs were of pronounced political character, and there were conducted by force. The interests of the state, which was developed according to the strict monarch plan, were of the main Peter's concern when performing those reforms. The introduction of European customs by Decrees, tearing apart ancient Russian cultural traditions was to emphasize the difference of principle of The Russian Empire - the great state of the European type, whose creation took (in theory) only a quarter of the century. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Peter1-Rus.html
Summing up Russia of that time needed any reforms. Historians d not have a united opinion about economical policy of Peter the First. Some of them think that it has artificial character and manufactories in Russia were an abnormal outgrowth, artificially engrafted to the economic organism of the country and which survived only owing to constant support and care of the government, but after the death of Peter most of these enterprises were closed, that fact proved their lack of vital capacity. But other historians think that there were serious natural preconditions: well-developed home market, national private capital, and skillful manpower. Results of scientific research of last years show that if many little textile factories could not bear competition with peasant home production, larger enterprises of this branch worked till less the middle of XVIII century. On the one hand the economic policy of Peter the First was very hard for all classes of Russian people; they all paid a great price for this industrial development. On the other hand from historical point of view the economic reforms of Peter the First enabled Russia to overcome the economic backwardness and made Russia a powerful Empire.
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