Pavlodar buying Heroin
Pavlodar buying HeroinPavlodar buying Heroin
__________________________
📍 Verified store!
📍 Guarantees! Quality! Reviews!
__________________________
▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼
▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲
Pavlodar buying Heroin
Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. The study uses baseline data from Project Renaissance, a couple-based HIV prevention intervention delivered to a couple where one or both partners are injecting drug users. One fourth One-quarter of those who tested positive were unaware of their status. Being HIV positive was associated with a history of incarceration, being an IDU, and having access to needle exchange programs. An estimated one percent of adults in Kazakhstan inject drugs 1. However, in towns along major drug trafficking routes in Kazakhstan, the proportion of adults who inject drugs exceeds 10 percent, representing some of the highest rates of injection drug use in the world 1. Along with a burgeoning drug epidemic, Central Asia has one of the fastest growing HIV epidemics in the world 3 — 5. Historically driven by injection drug use, the past few years have witnessed a steady rise in the incidence of sexual transmission as HIV has spread to the heterosexual partners of IDUs. In , official data showed that heterosexual transmission, which represented Prevalence rates of HIV among IDUs in Kazakhstan have relied on data from governmental surveillance studies, which tend to exclude IDUs who are not covered by syringe exchange programs or receiving drug treatment. Research suggests high rates of sharing syringes and drug equipment as well as high rates of multiple sexual partnerships and low rates of condom use among IDUs in Kazakhstan 2 , 6 — Research outside of Central Asia has demonstrated that HIV serostatus is associated with engaging in a range of drug and sexual risks among men and women 13 , Multiple structural factors have been found to contribute to HIV risk in different IDU populations including lack of access to sterile needles, fear of harassment, discrimination 15 — 18 , poverty, arrest and incarceration 19 — 22 , and barriers to HIV services and drug treatment 23 — Nevertheless, this issue has rarely been studied among IDUs in Kazakhstan and other Central Asian countries, and to date, there have been no prospective studies of these associations in the region. As in other Central Asia countries, IDUs face a number of governmental policies and structural barriers that prevent them from accessing harm reduction services and HIV care. Recently, three new pilot sites Pavlodar, Temirtau, and Ust-Kamenogorsk were added, but progress has been hampered by active political opposition The requirement to register as a drug user as well as pervasive stigma, discrimination, harsh treatment by the police, and fear of imprisonment prevent IDUs from accessing HIV prevention, testing, and treatment services. Participants completed a baseline pre-intervention assessment and repeated assessments at 3, 6, and 12 months post-intervention. Baseline data are used in this paper. The study employed a number of recruitment strategies. Trained research assistants recruited potential study participants from several different governmental, non-governmental, and community centers serving IDUs. Participants were also recruited via 1 word-of-mouth from participants to their injecting friends and network members, and 2 targeted outreach. Several times a week, trained research staff members, who were former drug users, visited known neighborhood locations where IDUs gather as well as HIV care clinics and needle exchange programs. Potential participants who indicated that they were over the age of 18 and had a main intimate partner of the opposite sex were asked to complete a face-to-face brief screening interview. No compensation was provided to IDUs for providing names of other potential participants. Couples were excluded if they met any of the following criteria: 1 either partner showed evidence of significant psychiatric, physical, or neurological impairment that would limit effective participation confirmed during informed consent; 2 either partner reported severe physical or sexual violence perpetrated by the other partner in the past year on a Revised Conflict Tactics Scale; 3 either partner reported that the couple was planning a pregnancy within the next 18 months; or 4 either partner was not fluent in Russian as determined during the informed consent process. We excluded couples who are trying to get pregnant because the intervention was designed to increase condom use and couples trying to become pregnant in the next 18 months would not be using condoms. In total, individuals completed the screening interview. The main reasons for ineligibility included both partners reporting no unprotected sex in the past 90 days 84 participants , attempting to get pregnant 77 , being in the relationship for less than 3 months 30 , reporting severe intimate partner violence 27 , reporting no injecting drug use in the past 90 days 21 , planning to relocate 15 , or either partner not speaking Russian 1 or not being above the age of 18 1. Some participants were ineligible for multiple reasons. Of the people who were screened, 33 were eligible but did not return to participate in the baseline. Data collection included both self-reported data and objective biological assays. During the baseline visit participants completed a 1. Socio-economic variables included years of education, homelessness having no place to sleep in the past 90 days , and food insecurity having insufficient money for food in the past 90 days. Measures of legal history included a history of incarceration and arrests. Self-reported data on sexual behaviors with the study partner and with all other partners in the prior 90 days were collected using the RBA, including any unprotected anal or vaginal sex, the number and proportion of unprotected vaginal or anal intercourse acts, and having had sex with one or more partners. Participants were asked whether or not they had ever received an HIV test, and if so, what the results of their HIV test were. If participants knew they were HIV positive, they were asked whether or not they had ever received medical care for HIV. They were also asked about their CD4 count and whether or not they were currently taking antiretroviral ARV medications. Tests for all three biomarkers were conducted using a serial two-test strategy, as recommended by the World Health Organization and routinely used at the Kazakhstan RAC. Bivariate relationships between HIV test result and each of the socio-demographic characteristics, drug, and sexual risk behaviors were assessed by chi-square and t-tests. Multivariate statistical analysis was performed to examine the relationship between HIV test result as the independent variable and HIV risk behaviors in the past 90 days as dependent variables. Non-independency of couple data in examining the association between HIV test result and each of drug and sexual risk behaviors were modeled as random effects in multilevel statistical models. Because participants were members of couples, the responses from each partner constituting a couple were not independent. Random-effects models, which accommodate within-group correlation, were incorporated into logistic regression models to allow responses within a couple to be correlated but assume independence across couples. Each regression model also included covariance adjustment of socio-demographic characteristics and injection drug use in the past 90 days. All statistical analyses were performed in SAS 9. Table 1 reports socio-demographic characteristics of participants. The majority of participants were Russian or Kazakh. Most participants reported being legally married or in a common law relationship and approximately half of participants had children under 18 Over one-tenth of participants Approximately two-thirds of the participants Men were more likely than women to report ever injecting drugs. On average, men reported injecting for a higher number of years than women. Of the total sample, only Among the total sample, the HIV prevalence rate was Of participants who were newly diagnosed as HIV positive, The prevalence rate of HCV was Among women who reported never injecting drugs, the prevalence rate of HIV was In these cases, we assume that HIV transmission occurred heterosexually. Among the HIV seropositive participants, Of participants who were positive and not on HIV treatment, In the remaining partnerships Table 3 describes socio-demographic characteristics by HIV status. Respondents who were HIV positive were more likely to report the following characteristics when compared to participants who were HIV negative: having a history of incarceration Calculated out of those who ever had access to a needle exchange program. Sexual and drug-related risk behaviors are described in Table 4. The majority of participants This rate is higher on average among males than among females. The analysis for drug-related risk behaviors only included those who had ever injected drugs. There are missing data for 20 IDU cases 11 males, 9 females. Among this group, In the previous 90 days, Over half Table 5 presents the findings from random effects logistic regression models examining associations between biologically assayed HIV status and sexual and drug behaviors. When running the regression model examining the associations between HIV test result and sexual risk behaviors among the subset of participants who were IDUs, the associations and odds ratios were similar to those found in the total sample. Similarly, associations between HIV test results and sexual and drug risk behaviors did not vary by whether or not participants were aware of their HIV status at baseline or were newly diagnosed cases. The adjusted covariates are gender age, marital status, years of education and ethnicity. Even though attendance at needle exchange programs was low, we found that HIV prevalence was associated with the use of needle and syringe exchanges. This is likely because those whose drug dependency is more severe and whose injection behavior is more frequent tend to use needle exchange services more than lower risk drug users. One-quarter of the sample One-quarter of those who tested HIV positive claimed to be previously unaware of their status, with 5. Qualitative research is needed to better understand the experiences of individuals newly diagnosed with HIV. Incarceration and poverty e. We also found that the majority of HIV positive participants These findings have important prevention and policy implications. First, the government of Kazakhstan and international NGOs need to place more attention on the structural barriers that prevent IDUs from accessing needle exchange programs and HIV treatment and services. Policies need to be changed to stop the high level of arrests and discrimination against IDUs. Other harm reduction options such as methadone treatment must be made available to IDUs in Almaty. Only a handful of pilot methadone maintenance programs exist in Kazakhstan, none of which are currently in Almaty. Our findings indicate that most participants did not know their CD4 count, and less than half Our study clearly demonstrates that participants were engaged in sexual and drug risk behaviors with each other and with other partners. Comparing male and female partners, findings show that more males than females reported having had unprotected sex with any partner, and that males were more likely to have had more than one concurrent partner. Among IDUs, males were also more likely to report recent injection drug use than women, however, female IDUs were more likely than male IDUs to report unsafe injection acts with their main partners. These findings are consistent with several studies that have shown that females who inject drugs tend to inject with their intimate sex partners, 17 , 18 , 29 — 31 which elevates their risk for HIV transmission. These findings underscore the need for innovative prevention strategies tailored to drug-involved couples that focus on reduction of both sexual and drug risks. The high rates observed in this study and other studies among IDUs in Central Asia 6 — 10 can be attributed to the prevalence of risky behaviors such as syringe sharing and abysmally low rates of condom use. Through examining the associations between HIV serostatus and sexual and drug risks, we found that being HIV positive was significantly associated with risky drug using behaviors, but the opposite was found regarding sexual risk behaviors i. The relationship between HIV serostatus and engaging in unsafe injection behaviors remained significant in the subgroup analysis among those who already knew that they were HIV positive at baseline as well as among those who found out about their HIV status at baseline. Research conducted outside of Central Asia has shown that IDUs may reduce sexual risk behavior after finding out that they are HIV positive, but they have less success in reducing drug risk behaviors These findings have important HIV prevention implications where strong emphasis should be placed on drug risk reduction not only among those who are HIV negative, but HIV positive people as well. The study has a number of strengths. However, it also has a number of limitations including that data was cross-sectional, which precludes us from determining the temporal relationships between risk behaviors and HIV infection. The sample is non-random; therefore, the study findings may not be representative of other injection drug users. Nevertheless, the study clearly reached a population of IDUs and their partners that have limited access to drug treatment and HIV services and care in this critical region of the world where concern about spread of the HIV epidemic is high. Despite limitations, the findings have important HIV treatment and prevention implications. Future research with more rigorous methods of respondent-driven or venue-based sampling is needed to obtain more accurate estimates of HIV prevalence and incidence rates in this population. Promoting confidential testing as a routine practice, while protecting IDUs from discrimination, registration, and arrest, must be implemented to reduce the spread of HIV among IDUs and their partners. Moreover, regular HIV testing should be central to the prevention continuum. Study findings underscore the need for prevention strategies that focus on non-IDU female sex partners of IDUs, couples who engage in drug use, and HIV discordant couples. Couple-based behavioral interventions combined with biomedical HIV prevention strategies for serodiscordant or at-risk couples have the potential to significantly reduce new incidence of HIV. Given that sexual and drug use behaviors occur in a dyadic context, involving both members of a couple jointly in an intervention to reduce transmission risk and support each other in adhering to ARV and other biomedical treatment is paramount to fighting an epidemic where no vaccine is available. In sum, the findings of this study demonstrate the urgent need for scaling up coverage of HIV testing, treatment and care for IDUs and their partners and for reducing the structural and sociopolitical barriers that prevent IDUs from accessing HIV prevention and treatment. Commitment and funding are necessary in order to reduce barriers and scale up coverage. We would like to acknowledge the study participants who shared their time and their experiences with Project Renaissance. We would also like to thank project staff members, Saltanat Yegeubayeva in particular, who assisted with recruitment, data collection, and project implementation. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. AIDS Behav. Find articles by Nabila El-Bassel. Find articles by Louisa Gilbert. Find articles by Assel Terlikbayeva. Find articles by Elwin Wu. Find articles by Chris Beyrer. Find articles by Stacey Shaw. Find articles by Tim Hunt. Find articles by Xin Ma. Find articles by Mingway Chang. Find articles by Leyla Ismayilova. Find articles by Marat Tukeyev. Find articles by Baurzhan Zhussupov. Find articles by Yelena Rozental. PMC Copyright notice. Open in a new tab. Associations with HIV-positive status Unadjusted Adjusted Had unprotected vaginal sex with main partner in the past 90 days 0. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Injected drugs in the past 90 days a. Had access to needle exchange program in the past 90 days b. Had injected drugs in the past 90 days a. Had unsafe injections in the past 90 days a. Had injecting partner s in the past 90 days a. Had unprotected vaginal sex with main partner in the past 90 days. Had unprotected vaginal sex with any partner in the past 90 days. Had unprotected anal sex with main partner in the past 90 days. Had unprotected anal sex with any partner in the past 90 days. Had more than one sexual partner in the past 90 days. Had injected drugs in the past 90 days b. Had unsafe injections in the past 90 days b. Had injecting partner s in the past 90 days b. Had more than one injecting partner in the past 90 days b. Had injected drugs with main partner in the past 90 days b. Had unsafe injections with main partner in the past 90 days b.
HIV among injection drug users and their intimate partners in Almaty, Kazakhstan
Pavlodar buying Heroin
Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. The study uses baseline data from Project Renaissance, a couple-based HIV prevention intervention delivered to a couple where one or both partners are injecting drug users. One fourth One-quarter of those who tested positive were unaware of their status. Being HIV positive was associated with a history of incarceration, being an IDU, and having access to needle exchange programs. An estimated one percent of adults in Kazakhstan inject drugs 1. However, in towns along major drug trafficking routes in Kazakhstan, the proportion of adults who inject drugs exceeds 10 percent, representing some of the highest rates of injection drug use in the world 1. Along with a burgeoning drug epidemic, Central Asia has one of the fastest growing HIV epidemics in the world 3 — 5. Historically driven by injection drug use, the past few years have witnessed a steady rise in the incidence of sexual transmission as HIV has spread to the heterosexual partners of IDUs. In , official data showed that heterosexual transmission, which represented Prevalence rates of HIV among IDUs in Kazakhstan have relied on data from governmental surveillance studies, which tend to exclude IDUs who are not covered by syringe exchange programs or receiving drug treatment. Research suggests high rates of sharing syringes and drug equipment as well as high rates of multiple sexual partnerships and low rates of condom use among IDUs in Kazakhstan 2 , 6 — Research outside of Central Asia has demonstrated that HIV serostatus is associated with engaging in a range of drug and sexual risks among men and women 13 , Multiple structural factors have been found to contribute to HIV risk in different IDU populations including lack of access to sterile needles, fear of harassment, discrimination 15 — 18 , poverty, arrest and incarceration 19 — 22 , and barriers to HIV services and drug treatment 23 — Nevertheless, this issue has rarely been studied among IDUs in Kazakhstan and other Central Asian countries, and to date, there have been no prospective studies of these associations in the region. As in other Central Asia countries, IDUs face a number of governmental policies and structural barriers that prevent them from accessing harm reduction services and HIV care. Recently, three new pilot sites Pavlodar, Temirtau, and Ust-Kamenogorsk were added, but progress has been hampered by active political opposition The requirement to register as a drug user as well as pervasive stigma, discrimination, harsh treatment by the police, and fear of imprisonment prevent IDUs from accessing HIV prevention, testing, and treatment services. Participants completed a baseline pre-intervention assessment and repeated assessments at 3, 6, and 12 months post-intervention. Baseline data are used in this paper. The study employed a number of recruitment strategies. Trained research assistants recruited potential study participants from several different governmental, non-governmental, and community centers serving IDUs. Participants were also recruited via 1 word-of-mouth from participants to their injecting friends and network members, and 2 targeted outreach. Several times a week, trained research staff members, who were former drug users, visited known neighborhood locations where IDUs gather as well as HIV care clinics and needle exchange programs. Potential participants who indicated that they were over the age of 18 and had a main intimate partner of the opposite sex were asked to complete a face-to-face brief screening interview. No compensation was provided to IDUs for providing names of other potential participants. Couples were excluded if they met any of the following criteria: 1 either partner showed evidence of significant psychiatric, physical, or neurological impairment that would limit effective participation confirmed during informed consent; 2 either partner reported severe physical or sexual violence perpetrated by the other partner in the past year on a Revised Conflict Tactics Scale; 3 either partner reported that the couple was planning a pregnancy within the next 18 months; or 4 either partner was not fluent in Russian as determined during the informed consent process. We excluded couples who are trying to get pregnant because the intervention was designed to increase condom use and couples trying to become pregnant in the next 18 months would not be using condoms. In total, individuals completed the screening interview. The main reasons for ineligibility included both partners reporting no unprotected sex in the past 90 days 84 participants , attempting to get pregnant 77 , being in the relationship for less than 3 months 30 , reporting severe intimate partner violence 27 , reporting no injecting drug use in the past 90 days 21 , planning to relocate 15 , or either partner not speaking Russian 1 or not being above the age of 18 1. Some participants were ineligible for multiple reasons. Of the people who were screened, 33 were eligible but did not return to participate in the baseline. Data collection included both self-reported data and objective biological assays. During the baseline visit participants completed a 1. Socio-economic variables included years of education, homelessness having no place to sleep in the past 90 days , and food insecurity having insufficient money for food in the past 90 days. Measures of legal history included a history of incarceration and arrests. Self-reported data on sexual behaviors with the study partner and with all other partners in the prior 90 days were collected using the RBA, including any unprotected anal or vaginal sex, the number and proportion of unprotected vaginal or anal intercourse acts, and having had sex with one or more partners. Participants were asked whether or not they had ever received an HIV test, and if so, what the results of their HIV test were. If participants knew they were HIV positive, they were asked whether or not they had ever received medical care for HIV. They were also asked about their CD4 count and whether or not they were currently taking antiretroviral ARV medications. Tests for all three biomarkers were conducted using a serial two-test strategy, as recommended by the World Health Organization and routinely used at the Kazakhstan RAC. Bivariate relationships between HIV test result and each of the socio-demographic characteristics, drug, and sexual risk behaviors were assessed by chi-square and t-tests. Multivariate statistical analysis was performed to examine the relationship between HIV test result as the independent variable and HIV risk behaviors in the past 90 days as dependent variables. Non-independency of couple data in examining the association between HIV test result and each of drug and sexual risk behaviors were modeled as random effects in multilevel statistical models. Because participants were members of couples, the responses from each partner constituting a couple were not independent. Random-effects models, which accommodate within-group correlation, were incorporated into logistic regression models to allow responses within a couple to be correlated but assume independence across couples. Each regression model also included covariance adjustment of socio-demographic characteristics and injection drug use in the past 90 days. All statistical analyses were performed in SAS 9. Table 1 reports socio-demographic characteristics of participants. The majority of participants were Russian or Kazakh. Most participants reported being legally married or in a common law relationship and approximately half of participants had children under 18 Over one-tenth of participants Approximately two-thirds of the participants Men were more likely than women to report ever injecting drugs. On average, men reported injecting for a higher number of years than women. Of the total sample, only Among the total sample, the HIV prevalence rate was Of participants who were newly diagnosed as HIV positive, The prevalence rate of HCV was Among women who reported never injecting drugs, the prevalence rate of HIV was In these cases, we assume that HIV transmission occurred heterosexually. Among the HIV seropositive participants, Of participants who were positive and not on HIV treatment, In the remaining partnerships Table 3 describes socio-demographic characteristics by HIV status. Respondents who were HIV positive were more likely to report the following characteristics when compared to participants who were HIV negative: having a history of incarceration Calculated out of those who ever had access to a needle exchange program. Sexual and drug-related risk behaviors are described in Table 4. The majority of participants This rate is higher on average among males than among females. The analysis for drug-related risk behaviors only included those who had ever injected drugs. There are missing data for 20 IDU cases 11 males, 9 females. Among this group, In the previous 90 days, Over half Table 5 presents the findings from random effects logistic regression models examining associations between biologically assayed HIV status and sexual and drug behaviors. When running the regression model examining the associations between HIV test result and sexual risk behaviors among the subset of participants who were IDUs, the associations and odds ratios were similar to those found in the total sample. Similarly, associations between HIV test results and sexual and drug risk behaviors did not vary by whether or not participants were aware of their HIV status at baseline or were newly diagnosed cases. The adjusted covariates are gender age, marital status, years of education and ethnicity. Even though attendance at needle exchange programs was low, we found that HIV prevalence was associated with the use of needle and syringe exchanges. This is likely because those whose drug dependency is more severe and whose injection behavior is more frequent tend to use needle exchange services more than lower risk drug users. One-quarter of the sample One-quarter of those who tested HIV positive claimed to be previously unaware of their status, with 5. Qualitative research is needed to better understand the experiences of individuals newly diagnosed with HIV. Incarceration and poverty e. We also found that the majority of HIV positive participants These findings have important prevention and policy implications. First, the government of Kazakhstan and international NGOs need to place more attention on the structural barriers that prevent IDUs from accessing needle exchange programs and HIV treatment and services. Policies need to be changed to stop the high level of arrests and discrimination against IDUs. Other harm reduction options such as methadone treatment must be made available to IDUs in Almaty. Only a handful of pilot methadone maintenance programs exist in Kazakhstan, none of which are currently in Almaty. Our findings indicate that most participants did not know their CD4 count, and less than half Our study clearly demonstrates that participants were engaged in sexual and drug risk behaviors with each other and with other partners. Comparing male and female partners, findings show that more males than females reported having had unprotected sex with any partner, and that males were more likely to have had more than one concurrent partner. Among IDUs, males were also more likely to report recent injection drug use than women, however, female IDUs were more likely than male IDUs to report unsafe injection acts with their main partners. These findings are consistent with several studies that have shown that females who inject drugs tend to inject with their intimate sex partners, 17 , 18 , 29 — 31 which elevates their risk for HIV transmission. These findings underscore the need for innovative prevention strategies tailored to drug-involved couples that focus on reduction of both sexual and drug risks. The high rates observed in this study and other studies among IDUs in Central Asia 6 — 10 can be attributed to the prevalence of risky behaviors such as syringe sharing and abysmally low rates of condom use. Through examining the associations between HIV serostatus and sexual and drug risks, we found that being HIV positive was significantly associated with risky drug using behaviors, but the opposite was found regarding sexual risk behaviors i. The relationship between HIV serostatus and engaging in unsafe injection behaviors remained significant in the subgroup analysis among those who already knew that they were HIV positive at baseline as well as among those who found out about their HIV status at baseline. Research conducted outside of Central Asia has shown that IDUs may reduce sexual risk behavior after finding out that they are HIV positive, but they have less success in reducing drug risk behaviors These findings have important HIV prevention implications where strong emphasis should be placed on drug risk reduction not only among those who are HIV negative, but HIV positive people as well. The study has a number of strengths. However, it also has a number of limitations including that data was cross-sectional, which precludes us from determining the temporal relationships between risk behaviors and HIV infection. The sample is non-random; therefore, the study findings may not be representative of other injection drug users. Nevertheless, the study clearly reached a population of IDUs and their partners that have limited access to drug treatment and HIV services and care in this critical region of the world where concern about spread of the HIV epidemic is high. Despite limitations, the findings have important HIV treatment and prevention implications. Future research with more rigorous methods of respondent-driven or venue-based sampling is needed to obtain more accurate estimates of HIV prevalence and incidence rates in this population. Promoting confidential testing as a routine practice, while protecting IDUs from discrimination, registration, and arrest, must be implemented to reduce the spread of HIV among IDUs and their partners. Moreover, regular HIV testing should be central to the prevention continuum. Study findings underscore the need for prevention strategies that focus on non-IDU female sex partners of IDUs, couples who engage in drug use, and HIV discordant couples. Couple-based behavioral interventions combined with biomedical HIV prevention strategies for serodiscordant or at-risk couples have the potential to significantly reduce new incidence of HIV. Given that sexual and drug use behaviors occur in a dyadic context, involving both members of a couple jointly in an intervention to reduce transmission risk and support each other in adhering to ARV and other biomedical treatment is paramount to fighting an epidemic where no vaccine is available. In sum, the findings of this study demonstrate the urgent need for scaling up coverage of HIV testing, treatment and care for IDUs and their partners and for reducing the structural and sociopolitical barriers that prevent IDUs from accessing HIV prevention and treatment. Commitment and funding are necessary in order to reduce barriers and scale up coverage. We would like to acknowledge the study participants who shared their time and their experiences with Project Renaissance. We would also like to thank project staff members, Saltanat Yegeubayeva in particular, who assisted with recruitment, data collection, and project implementation. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. AIDS Behav. Find articles by Nabila El-Bassel. Find articles by Louisa Gilbert. Find articles by Assel Terlikbayeva. Find articles by Elwin Wu. Find articles by Chris Beyrer. Find articles by Stacey Shaw. Find articles by Tim Hunt. Find articles by Xin Ma. Find articles by Mingway Chang. Find articles by Leyla Ismayilova. Find articles by Marat Tukeyev. Find articles by Baurzhan Zhussupov. Find articles by Yelena Rozental. PMC Copyright notice. Open in a new tab. Associations with HIV-positive status Unadjusted Adjusted Had unprotected vaginal sex with main partner in the past 90 days 0. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Injected drugs in the past 90 days a. Had access to needle exchange program in the past 90 days b. Had injected drugs in the past 90 days a. Had unsafe injections in the past 90 days a. Had injecting partner s in the past 90 days a. Had unprotected vaginal sex with main partner in the past 90 days. Had unprotected vaginal sex with any partner in the past 90 days. Had unprotected anal sex with main partner in the past 90 days. Had unprotected anal sex with any partner in the past 90 days. Had more than one sexual partner in the past 90 days. Had injected drugs in the past 90 days b. Had unsafe injections in the past 90 days b. Had injecting partner s in the past 90 days b. Had more than one injecting partner in the past 90 days b. Had injected drugs with main partner in the past 90 days b. Had unsafe injections with main partner in the past 90 days b.
Pavlodar buying Heroin
HIV among injection drug users and their intimate partners in Almaty, Kazakhstan
Pavlodar buying Heroin
Pavlodar buying Heroin
HIV among injection drug users and their intimate partners in Almaty, Kazakhstan
Pavlodar buying Heroin
Pavlodar buying Heroin
Pavlodar buying Heroin
Pavlodar buying Heroin