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^ "Wet nurse, wet-nurse, n". Oxford English Dictionary . December 1989.
^ O'Reilly, Andrea, "Wet Nursing," Encyclopedia of Motherhood (2010): 1271
^ Mrs Isabella Beeton (1861). Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management (1st ed.). London: S. O. Beeton, 18 Bouverie Street, London EC. pp. 1022–1024.
^ "Situations Vacant" . The Age . Victoria, Australia. 15 June 1897. p. 8 . Retrieved 18 May 2020 – via Trove.
^ Jump up to: a b Emily E. Stevens, Thelma E. Patrick and Rita Pickler, "A History of Infant Feeding," Journal of Perinatal Education (Spring 2009): 32-39. (accessed February 10, 2016).
^ O'Reilly, Andrea, "Wet Nursing," Encyclopedia of Motherhood (2010): 1271.
^ E. Goljan, Pathology, 2nd ed. Mosby Elsevier, Rapid Review Series.
^ Wilson-Clay, Barbara (1996). "Induced Lactation" Archived 9 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine . The American Surrogacy Center .
^ Lecturer in Human Nutrition at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine and author of The Politics of Breastfeeding
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Groskop, Viv. "Viv Groskop on women who breastfeed other people's babies – Society" . The Guardian . Retrieved 21 September 2014 .
^ "Destitute Commission" . The Evening Journal (Adelaide) . South Australia. 26 April 1884. p. 7 . Retrieved 25 March 2020 – via Trove.
^ O'Reilly, Andrea, "Wet Nursing," Encyclopedia of Motherhood (2010): 1273.
^ Native planters in old Hawaii: their life, lore, and environment by Edward Smith Craighill Handy, Elizabeth Green Handy, Mary Kawena Pukui .
^ Hawaiian antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii) by David Malo
^ Keith R. Bradley, "Wet-Nursing at Rome: A Study in Social Relations," in The Family in Ancient Rome (Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 213.
^ Bradley, "Wet-Nursing at Rome," p. 214.
^ Suzanne Dixon , Childhood, Class and Kin in the Roman World (Routledge, 2001), p. 62; Bradley, "Wet-Nursing at Rome," p. 214.
^ Bradley, "Wet-Nursing at Rome," p. 201.
^ Bradley, "Wet-Nursing at Rome," pp. 201–202 et passim, especially p. 210.
^ Soranus of Ephesus , Gynaecology 2.19.24–5.
^ Celia E. Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic (University of North Carolina Press, 2006), p. 54; Bradley, "Wet-Nursing at Rome," p. 202ff.
^ Evidence for bottle-feeding among the Romans is very slim, and the nutritor may have simply been a nursemaid ; Bradley, "Wet-Nursing at Rome," p. 214.
^ Soranus, Gynaecology 2.44.
^ Richard Tames, Ancient Roman Children (Heineman, 2003), p. 11.
^ DĀYASORANĀGAS OF IMPERIAL MUGHAL. Balkrishan Shivram. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress Vol. 74 (2013), pp. 258-268. Published by: Indian History Congress. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44158824
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Wolf, Jacqueline H, "Wet Nursing", Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society (2004).
^ Acton, W., "Unmarried Wet Nurses", Lancet Vol. 1 (1859): 175.
^ Valerie A. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles, and Babies: A History of Infant Feeding , Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1986: 193.
^ Valerie A. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles, and Babies: A History of Infant Feeding , Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1986: 152.
^ Routh, C. H. F., "On the Mortality of Infants in Foundling Institutions, and Generally, As Influenced By the Absence of Breast-Milk". British Medical Journal 1 (6 February 1858): 105.
^ Valerie A. Fildes, Breasts, Bottles, and Babies: A History of Infant Feeding , Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1986: 243.
^ Jump up to: a b c O'Reilly, Andrea, "Wet Nursing", Encyclopaedia of Motherhood (2010): 1271.
^ Romanet, Emmanuelle (1 December 2013). "La mise en nourrice, une pratique répandue en France au XIXe siècle" . Transtext(e)s Transcultures 跨文本跨文化. Journal of Global Cultural Studies (8). doi : 10.4000/transtexts.497 – via journals.openedition.org.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Paula S. Fass (ed.), "Wet Nursing", Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society (2004): 884–887.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sherwood, Joan, Infection of the Innocents: Wet Nurses, Infants, and Syphilis in France, 1780-1900 . McGill-Queen's University Press (2010).
^ Ames, Fisher (1921). American Red Cross Work Among the French People . Macmillan. p. 131 .
^ Golden, Janet, A Social History of Wet Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle , Cambridge University Press (1996)
^ O'Reilly, Andrea, "Wet Nursing", Encyclopaedia of Motherhood (2010): 1271
^ Thompson, Barbara, ed. "The Body of a Myth: Embodying the Black Mammy Figure in Visual Culture". In Black Womanhood: Images, Icons, and Ideologies of the African Body . Hanover, New Hampshire: Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College, 2008.
^ "Mother's virtue gives her children great blessing" . www.baolavansu.com . Retrieved 22 July 2020 .
^ George the Third, his Court, and family, Volume 1 . 1820. p. 73 . Retrieved 17 January 2019 .
^ Lutenbacher, Melanie, Sharon Karp, and Elizabeth Moore. "Reflections of Black Women Who Choose to Breastfeed: Influences, Challenges, and Supports". Maternal & Child Health Journal 20, no. 2 (February 2016): 231–239.
^ Gerstein, Julie (11 February 2009). "Salma Hayek Breast-feeds Hungry African Babe" . LemonDrop . AOL . Retrieved 11 February 2009 .
^ "Got Milk? Chinese Crisis Creates A Market for Human Alternatives" . WSJ . 24 September 2008 . Retrieved 21 September 2014 .
^ N. Reeves: Akhenaten, Egypt's False Prophet , London 2001, ISBN 0-500-05106-2 , p. 180
^ Eric H. Cline, David B. O'Connor, Thutmose III: A New Biography , University of Michigan Press 2006, ISBN 0-472-11467-0 p.98
^ Hawass, Zahi; Saleem, Sahar N. (2016). Scanning the Pharaohs : CT Imaging of the New Kingdom Royal Mummies . Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-977-416-673-0 .
^ "My Wet Nurse - The Last Manchu: The Autobiography of Henry Pu Yi, Last Emperor of China" . erenow.net . Retrieved 26 April 2021 .
^ Arnaud Delalande. Le Cœur du Roi : Révolution 1 (The Heart of the King), Grasset, 2017, ISBN 9782246858508 ,
^ "Death rate from tuberculosis, by age, World, 1990 to 2017" . Our World in Data . Global Change Data Lab. 2017 . Retrieved 9 December 2020 .
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A wet nurse is a woman who breast feeds and cares for another's child. [1] Wet nurses are employed if the mother dies, or if she is unable or chooses not to nurse the child herself. Wet-nursed children may be known as "milk-siblings", and in some cultures the families are linked by a special relationship of milk kinship . Wetnursing existed in cultures around the world until the invention of reliable formula milk in the 20th century. The practice has made a small comeback in the 21st century.
A wet nurse can help when a mother is unable or unwilling to breast feed her baby. Before the development of infant formula in the 20th century, wet-nursing could save the baby's life.
There are many reasons why a mother is unable to produce sufficient breast milk, or in some cases to lactate at all. For example, she may have a chronic or acute illness, and either the illness itself, or the treatment for it, reduces or stops her milk. This absence of lactation may be temporary or permanent.
There was a greater need for wetnurses when the rates of infant abandonment , and maternal death during and shortly after childbirth , were high. [2] [3] There was a concurrent availability of lactating women whose own babies had died , also not uncommon. [4]
Some women chose not to breastfeed for social reasons. For upper-class women, breastfeeding was considered unfashionable, in the sense that it not only prevented them from being able to wear the fashionable clothing of their time but it was also thought to ruin their figures. [5] Working women faced other pressures to abandon breastfeeding, including from their husbands. [ citation needed ] Hiring a wet nurse was less expensive than having to hire someone else to help run the family business and/or take care of the family household duties in their place. [5] Some women chose to hire wet nurses purely to escape from the confining and time-consuming chore of breastfeeding. [6] Wet nurses have also been used when a mother cannot produce sufficient breast milk, i.e., the mother feels incapable of adequately nursing her child, especially following multiple births .
A woman can only act as a wet-nurse if she is lactating (producing milk). It was once believed that a wet-nurse must have recently undergone childbirth. This is not necessarily the case, as regular breast stimulation can elicit lactation via a neural reflex of prolactin production and secretion. [7] Some adoptive mothers have been able to establish lactation using a breast pump so that they could feed an adopted infant. [8]
Gabrielle Palmer , [9] author of The Politics of Breastfeeding , states:
There is no medical reason why women should not lactate indefinitely or feed more than one child simultaneously (known as 'tandem feeding')... some women could theoretically be able to feed up to five babies. [10]
Wet nursing is an ancient practice, common to many cultures. It has been linked to social class, where monarchies, the aristocracy , nobility or upper classes had their children wet-nursed for the benefit of the child's health, and sometimes in the hope of becoming pregnant again quickly. Exclusive breastfeeding inhibits ovulation in some women ( lactational amenorrhea ). Poor women, especially those who suffered the stigma of giving birth to an illegitimate child, sometimes had to give their baby up temporarily to a wet nurse, or permanently to another family. [11] The woman herself might in turn become wet nurse to a wealthier family, while using part of her wages to pay her own child's wet nurse. From Roman times and into the present day, philosophers and thinkers alike have held the view that the important emotional bond between mother and child is threatened by the presence of a wet nurse. [12]
Many cultures feature stories, historical or mythological, involving superhuman, supernatural, human and in some instances animal wet-nurses .
The Bible refers to Deborah , a nurse to Rebekah wife of Isaac and mother of Jacob (Israel) and Esau , who appears to have lived as a member of the household all her days. (Genesis 35:8.) Midrashic commentaries on the Torah hold that the Egyptian princess Bithiah (Pharaoh's wife Asiya in the Islamic Hadith and Qur'an ) attempted to wet-nurse Moses , but he would take only his biological mother's milk. ( Exodus 2:6–9 )
In Greek mythology , Eurycleia is the wet-nurse of Odysseus . In Roman mythology , Caieta was the wet-nurse of Aeneas . In Burmese mythology , Myaukhpet Shinma is the nat (spirit) representation of the wet nurse of King Tabinshwehti . In Hawaiian mythology , Nuakea is a beneficent goddess of lactation; [13] her name became the title for a royal wetnurse, according to David Malo . [14]
In ancient Rome , well-to-do households would have had wet-nurses ( Latin nutrices , singular nutrix ) among their slaves and freedwomen, [15] but some Roman women were wet-nurses by profession, and the Digest of Roman law even refers to a wage dispute for wet-nursing services (nutricia) . [16] The landmark known as the Columna Lactaria ("Milk Column") may have been a place where wet-nurses could be hired. [17] It was considered admirable for upperclass women to breastfeed their own children , but unusual and old-fashioned in the Imperial era . [18] Even women of the working classes or slaves might have their babies nursed, [19] and the Roman-era Greek gynecologist Soranus offers detailed advice on how to choose a wet-nurse. [20] Inscriptions such as religious dedications and epitaphs indicate that a nutrix would be proud of her profession. [21] One even records a nutritor lactaneus , a male "milk nurse" who presumably used a bottle. [22] Greek nurses were preferred, [23] and the Romans believed that a baby who had a Greek nutrix could imbibe the language and grow up speaking Greek as fluently as Latin. [24]
The importance of the wet nurse to ancient Roman culture is indicated by the founding myth of Romulus and Remus , who were abandoned as infants but nursed by the she-wolf , as portrayed in the famous Capitoline Wolf bronze sculpture. The goddess Rumina was invoked among other birth and child development deities to promote the flow of breast milk.
By the 1500s, a wealthy mother who did not use a wet nurse was worthy of remark in India. The child was not "put out" of the household, rather, the wet nurse was included within it. The imperial wet nurses of the Mughal court were given honours in the Turco-Mongol tradition. [25]
Wet nursing used to be commonplace in the United Kingdom. Working-class women both provided and received wet nursing services.
Taking care of babies was a well-paid, respectable and popular job for many working-class women. In the 18th-century, a woman would earn more money as a wet nurse than her husband could as a labourer. Up until the 19th century, most wet-nursed infants were sent far from their families to live with their new caregiver for up to the first three years of their life. [26] As many as 80% of wet-nursed babies who lived like this died during infancy. [26]
During the Victorian era , women took in babies for money, and nursed them themselves or fed them with whatever was cheapest. This was known as baby-farming ; poor care sometimes resulted in high infant death rates . The wet nurse at this period was most likely a single woman who previously had given birth to an illegitimate child. [27] There were two types of wet nurses by this time: those on poor relief , who struggled to provide sufficiently for themselves or their charges, and the professionals, who were well paid and respected.
Upper-class women tended to hire wet nurses to work within their own homes, as part of a large household of servants.
Wet nurses also worked at foundling hospitals , establishments for abandoned children . Her own child would likely be sent away, normally brought up by the bottle rather than being breastfed. Valerie Fildes, author of Breasts, Bottle and Babies: A History of Infant Feeding , argues that "In effect, wealthy parents frequently 'bought' the life of their infant for the life of another." [28]
Wet nursing decreased in popularity during the mid-19th century, as medical journalists wrote about its previously undocumented dangers. Fildes argued that "Britain has been lumped together with the rest of Europe in any discussion of the qualities, terms of employment and conditions of the wet nurse, and particularly the abuses of which she was supposedly guilty." [29] C. H. F. Routh, a medical journalist writing in the late 1850s listed the evils of wet-nursing, such as the abandonment of the wetnurses' own children, higher infant mortality, and an increased physical and moral risk to a nursed child. [30] While this argument was not founded in any sort of proof, the emotional arguments of medical researchers, coupled with the protests of other critics, slowly increased public knowledge; the practice declined, replaced by maternal breastfeeding and bottle-feeding. [31]
Wet nursing was reported in France in the time of Louis XIV , the mid 17th century. By the 18th century, approximately 90% of infants were wet nursed, mostly sent away to live with their wet nurses. [32] In Paris, only 1000 of the 21,000 babies born in 1780 were nursed by their own mother. [33] The high demand for wet nurses coincided with the low wages and high rent prices of this era, which forced many women to have to work soon after childbirth. [26] This meant that many mothers had to send their infants away to be breastfed and cared for by wet nurses even poorer than themselves. With the high demand for wet nurses, the price to hire one increased as the standard of care decreased. [26] This led to many infant deaths. In response, rather than nursing their own children, upper-class women turned to hiring wet nurses to come live with them instead. In entering into their employers home to care for their charges, these wet nurses had to leave their own infants to be nursed and cared for by women far worse off than themselves, and who likely lived at a relatively far distance away.
The Bureau of Wet Nurses was created in Paris in 1769 to serve two main purposes; it supplied parents with wet nurses, as well as helped lessen the neglect of babies by controlling monthly salary payments. [26] In order to become a wet nurse, women had to meet a few qualifications including a good physical body with a good moral character; they were often judged on their age, their health, the number of children they had, as well as their breast shape, breast size, breast texture, nipple shape and nipple size, since all these aspects were believed to affect the quality of a woman's milk. [34] In 1874, the French government introduced a law named after Dr Theophile Roussel , which "mandated that every infant placed with a paid guardian outside the parents' home be registered with the state so that the French government is able to monitor how many children are placed with wet nurses and how many wet nursed children have died". [26]
Wet nurses were hired to work in hospitals to nurse babies who were premature, ill, or abandoned. [32] During the 18th and 19th centuries, congenital syphilis was a common cause of infant mortality. [35] The Vaugirard hospital in Paris began to use mercury as a treatment; however, it could not be safely administered to infants. [35] In 1780, it began the process of giving mercury to wet nurses who could then transmit the treatment in their milk to the infected infants. [35]
The practice of wetnursing was still widespread during World War I, according to the American Red Cross . Working-class women would leave their babies with wetnurses so they could get jobs in factories. [36]
British colonists brought the practice of wet nursing with them to North America. [34] Since the arrangement of sending infants away to live with wet nurses was the cause of so many infant deaths, by the
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