Nimes buying Cannabis

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Nimes buying Cannabis

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Nimes buying Cannabis

Herbal cannabis is one of the most consumed illegal drugs in Europe, with increasing local production. Illicit cannabis cultivation is not new to Western Europe. It first emerged on the scene in the s, in the wake of the counter-culture following the Protests. Since then, it has gradually become more professional due to the increased diversification of involved actors, such as Organized Crime Groups OCG , and the growing role of players linked to mafia organizations in both Italy and Albany. In Spain and France, where Moroccan resin has long dominated supply and demand, the cannabis market has seen a rise in herbal cannabis production. This, in turn, challenges the role of OCGs invested in resin importation. Yet, European marihuana production cannot be defined as a strictly criminal business. Small growers remain significant actors in production. This trend in production must be examined against evolving attitudes towards marihuana at the global level, linked especially to new legislation in the United States and in Canada. In , prevalence rates of use among 15 to year-olds ranged from as low as 3. This is especially the case in France and Spain where Moroccan hashish is very popular. However, since the early s the growing European demand for marihuana herbal cannabis has led to the local development of cannabis cultivation. Cannabis seizures numbers reflect this shift in consumption, with herbal cannabis seizures largely surpassing those of cannabis resin as of In , European law enforcement organizations have reported seizures of herbal cannabis, of cannabis resin and 22 of cannabis plants EMCDDA, We will then examine current players in mass production across Europe, taking into consideration the integral role of small growers and cannabis social clubs. Ultimately we aim to show that the European landscape of cannabis cultivation cannot be reduced to a criminal business, and is, in fact, much more complex, with a multitude of actors involved. If we consider that eradicated cannabis plants could be used to a certain extent as indicators of European production EMCDDA, , the situation is such that economist Adrian Jansen did not hesitate, already in the early s, to mention a real green avalanche in Europe Jansen, What was valid at the time with 1. In addition, since the early s seizures of cannabis plants regularly exceed versus 50 between and Masson and Gandilhon, This increase led to a surge in plant seizures in , with over 1 million plants seized from indoor and outdoor cultivation up from , in and , in DEASRI, In Italy, marihuana is increasingly consumed and has become the most seized illicit drug: with an ever-increasingly high number of seized plants: plants in vs in and in EMCDDA, Illustration 1 — Seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis, or more recent year. This change stems from a shift in cannabis production and culture from the Netherlands to other EU countries, beginning as early as the s Potter et al. Quality is determined by the content of the cannabis by-product marihuana, hashish , by its taste, and by its effect high , all aspects that depend on the proportion of indica and sativa strains Ben Lakhdar and Weinberger, This trend is supported by the listed average prices for product in Europe, where the per-gram sales price for high potency cannabis products is 1. In the s and s, Californian cannabis growers had started experimenting with hybridization and improved cultivation techniques in order to increase the potency of a Mexican cannabis variety Weisheit, The sinsemilla seedless in Spanish technique was later adopted, the uprooting of male plants 4 during cultivation enabling female plants to achieve maximal THC potency 5. Partnerships between Dutch and American cannabis growers led to a major transformation in the Western European cannabis market. Indoor cultivation methods and a new, adapted generation of cannabis seeds were the first step in the development of the European home-grown culture. Made possible through the development of new varieties that could be cultivated indoors, the movement of cannabis production in Europe started to become important in the early s in the Netherlands. At that time, however, cannabis cultivation remained marginal and only a limited numbers of aficionados were involved in cultivation. This model of cultivation symbolized a time of community-based living and a rejection of consumerist societies. Indeed, these first European cannabis cultivators were usually not interested in a commercial approach. In fact, the cannabis sold in coffee shops was mainly imported, such as resin from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Lebanon, and more marginally from Morocco. Coffee shops increasingly answered to this demand by offering Dutch products. After successfully meeting local demand Korf, , the Netherlands become the leading herbal cannabis producing country in Europe and the leading 'Eurocannabis' exporter, sending over tons per year to Belgium, Germany and Scandinavia Lalam and Weinberger, Previously, the majority of these or so crime networks were involved in synthetic drug production — particularly ecstasy. However, they seized the opportunity to increase their profits in the s by setting up indoor plantations in the southern Netherlands. Armed with considerable experience in indoor production, these organized crime networks proceeded to develop cannabis factories elsewhere in Europe. Former Dutch producers also reoriented themselves as 'consultants' for setting up new plantations, enhancing their technical expertise while providing criminal groups who want to start cultivation sites with the necessary equipment Korf, These shops now make-up an important component of the criminal networks who own them in the Netherlands and in other European countries. It appears that, among others things, criminal networks fund select shop managers to start cultivating cannabis and to incite exotic plants growers to grow cannabis. Setting up such criminal cooperatives ensures that cannabis production is divided in discrete small- to medium-sized sites that limit losses due to potential seizures or thefts. Grow shops also provide money laundering opportunities to criminal networks 7. Dutch crime networks have also been investing in grow shops in Spain to spur cannabis cultivation there and in Morocco, to compete with European cannabis Potter et al. Nearby, Northern France has also been targeted to become a production hub to supply the growing the French market as well as that in other European countries. In , cannabis plants were seized at a French farm operated by a Dutch man, in the Allier department. The equipment required for cultivation had been installed by Dutch organized crime actors, and the products, after passing through the Netherlands, were intended for sale in the United Kingdom Potter, ; Masson and Gandilhon, Certain European police forces have identified the presence of 'facilitators' in many countries, including Poland, Czech Republic, Spain, and Morocco Chouvy and Macfarlane, In France, it seems that some criminal sectors are increasing cannabis production, as was illustrated with the discovery of a plant farm in 8. In this case, independently funded cannabis growers received technical assistance from a Dutch investor, while 'helping hands' were recruited amongst local dealers. Since then, much more complex methods of trafficking have been uncovered by the OCRTIS, potentially announcing the end of amateurism. For example, a recently dismantled 'criminal cooperative' of cannabis nurseries in a dozen houses throughout the French territory mimics a modus operandi previously observed in the Netherlands and Great Britain. In France, the decentralization of production creates a higher number of small production sites, relinquishing economies of scale for security. For example, a study on French small growers showed that the ban on the sale of cannabis seeds for cultivation benefited online seed shops. In France, Dutch online grow shops have become the main source of seeds and cuttings With a market that is increasingly dominated by a variety of transnational networks involved in cannabis cultivation, it would appear that the time of the Dutch monopoly has officially come to an end. Subsequently, indoor production became a huge phenomenon in the UK, as evidenced by the discovery between and of 1 plantations in London alone SOCA, Moreover, the British findings revealed that two thirds of the discovered plantations were owned by Sino-Vietnamese criminals 9. As is often the case with prostitution and cigarette trafficking, working on these plantations is one way for immigrants to repay their passage into the country. Meanwhile, organizers come from Sino-Vietnamese communities present in the UK for at least a generation, thus explaining why they are well-integrated into society. Organizers rent the sites, purchase the needed equipment and sell what they produce to British dealers. Profits are often laundered through complex commercial channels in the UK, such as nailbars and Vietnamese companies. Organizations are discreet with well-delineated networks of small plantations. Thus, cannabis production is not handled by a single organization, but rather, a whole host of user-dealer micro-networks based on local and family social ties Silvestone and Savage, where trust plays a key regulatory role in production and associated money laundering activities. Such low-key operating methods are very different from the image of a flashy and opulent drug dealer. The ostentatious lifestyle is eschewed and other than exploiting migrant workers for labor, violence is rare 10 because the purpose is not to control territories, but rather to produce cannabis and sell it to local dealers. However, the current market is changing along with British organized crime landscape: the role of Vietnamese networks is declining in favor of other, local OCGs drawn to the profitability of the herbal cannabis market National Police Chiefs Council, In turn, an increasingly competitive market is likely responsible for the delocalization of these networks in other European countries such as Germany, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia 11 and France. The people running the plantation could earn over , euros in sales per year, generating significant profits given the low labor costs. Workers were illegal Vietnamese immigrants who paid for their passage to Europe by working for several months under near slavery conditions Weinberger, Since , additional cases involving Vietnamese networks have been uncovered in France, but their role remain marginal when compared to the phenomenon observed in the UK. Alongside Sino-Vietnamese criminals, a range of other types of criminals are emerging in the French cannabis market, such as gangs specialized in hashish supply who have been reconverting into marihuana production and supply. Some court cases in France have demonstrated that these criminal groups run numerous plantations, set up primarily in the countryside, and supplying dealing retail spot implemented in urban areas Lalam and Weinberger ; Masson and Gandilhon, However, an increasing demand for highly-potent herbal cannabis spurred local production at the end of the s, with increased quantities of homegrown cannabis and a larger role played by organized crime groups. This is exemplified by the fact that Italy holds the absolute European record for the largest dismantled plantation, with over 2. In , an astounding 4 million plants were seized throughout the country, primarily in the south where the climate is most favorable to outdoor cultivation, and where the mafia is very powerful. This is the case in Calabria where cannabis is known as the 'green gold of Aspromonte' the local mountain range and where a significant portion of Italian cannabis production is concentrated. Here, cultivation is controlled by the 'Ndrangheta crime network, which has been exporting its expertise to Australia since the s, and where outdoor cultivation is still controlled by a few major Calabrian families Weinberger, A recent case, in the summer of , illustrates the key role played by this mafia, with 18 people belonging to the Calabrian organization arrested and 26 plants seized Euronews, Albania started producing cannabis on a commercial scale after the collapse of the Stalinist regime in the s Zhilla and Lamallari, Geographically, Albania is well-situated given its proximity to Italy as little as 80km away in some regions. As a comparison, 89 tons of cannabis herb and It is noteworthy that, at this time, Albania had become, according to some estimates, the leading producer of marihuana, t in versus t in DEASRI, , with a high level of products cultivated outdoors in the northern and southwestern mountainous regions of the country. Hungary and Slovenia have since reported seizures of the top-quality Skunk strain of cannabis from Albania Zhilla and Lamallari, In parallel, the Albanian mafia clans have also distinguished themselves via their capacity to increase production of hashish oil, as discovered in laboratories in Lazarat Zhilla and Lamallari, Two plantations — out of a total of 12 — containing 2 marihuana plants were located in Girona and Barcelona. In countries like France and Spain, where resin has long dominated the market, small growers and users are moving away from low-quality standardized cannabis by-products, opting instead for niche organic products INHES, This trend is not limited to cannabis cultivation and proceeds from a strong desire to control the conditions of production by favoring short supply chains. In France, cannabis cultivation took root in the years following the May events, as numerous youth broke from industrial society, relocating to the countryside, especially in the south of the country. In the s, in a market dominated almost entirely by resin from Morocco, and to a much lesser extent Afghanistan and Lebanon, small-scale outdoor grows run by noncommercial growers in France had persisted Boekhout van Solinge, Another study showed that people engaged in cultivation out of ecological and self-reliance choices Lefour, Despite the growing involvement of OCGs in cannabis cultivation, autonomy and a connection with nature likely remain key motivators for small-scale, non-commercial outdoor growers. The same is true in other European countries, including England and Wales Hough et al. Commercial models are affecting the cannabis industry. There is a real fear that the non-profit dimension of cannabis cultivation, which remains strong among individual growers and Cannabis Social Clubs Pardal, , is on its way out in Europe if business friendly models of production prevail. Specifically, small growers are caught between the growing involvement of criminal organizations and a legal accumulation of capital. Nevertheless, the principle of gifting is still very present. While the primary motivation is to maintain the security of users avoiding violence and law enforcement, an additional dimension recently emerged in France: a strong desire to avoid contributing to cannabis criminal markets, both out of fear and ethics Le Parisien , In France, almost 6 out of 10 small growers are unable to satisfy their needs and are forced to buy from the black market Gandilhon et al. Therefore, the era of the Moroccan resin are not over, despite the advent of a much more competitive market. This is especially the case now that the hybrid revolution that has deeply transformed traditional cannabis production has made the production of high quality resin easier and increasingly available Afsahi and Chouvy, ; Chouvy, The development of commercial cannabis cultivation among small-time growers stems from the profitability of the practice in a context marked by an economic crisis. However, conclusions regarding small-time commercial growing must be made with caution. Second, as demonstrated about Belgium, there is a clear risk in observing the market to overestimate the number of commercial growers due to extensive media coverage and the difficulty that there is to clearly define when exactly cannabis cultivation becomes commercial Decorte, a. The primary change was the shift towards marihuana consumption rather than resin consumption, which spurred an ever-increasing local cannabis production that is subject to industrialization processes. As a consequence, mass production made possible by indoor cultivation of hybrid seeds varieties has grown across the rest of Europe, attracting new actors. This is exemplified by the cannabis factories controlled by Asian criminal groups in the United Kingdom, and by the emergence of Albania and southern Italy as centers of outdoor cultivation in some of Europe most mafia-controlled regions. In France, a strategic market in the heart of Western Europe, an increased availability of marihuana has been observed alongside a surge in illegal cannabis cultivation. In Spain, changes to the legal status of cannabis in Catalonia and the subsequent social cannabis club movement means that cultivation has developed in a context where the boundaries between legality and illegality are increasingly blurred. Afsahi K. Le haschich marocain, du kif aux hybrides. Alvarez A. Cannabis cultivation in Spain: A profile of plantations, growers and production system. International Journal of Drug Policy , vol 37, p. DOI: Arana X. Cannabis cultivation in Spain. The case of cannabis Social Clubs. In Decorte T. Global Trends in Cannabis cultivation and its control. Ashgate Press, p Beck S. Usages de drogues illicites. Ben Lakhdar C. Boulat T. Le Courrier des Addictions , vol. How to avoid criminalisation of eurocannabis, learning from the dutch experience. Chouvy, P. The supply of hashish to Europe. Chouvy P. International Journal of Drug Policy , vol. Bilan relatif au cannabis. Decorte T. The case for small-scale domestic cannabis cultivation. Direction centrale de la police judiciaire, Report on the state of the drugs problem in Europe. Annual Report , Lisbon. Cannabis production and markets in Europe. European Drug Report Trends and Developments. Luxembourg, 90 p. Gandilhon M. Hardwick S. Home Office cannabis potency study Scientific Development Branch, London. Hough M. A growing market — the domestic cultivation of cannabis. Joseph Rowntree Foundation. INHES, La culture illicite de cannabis en France. Rapport final. Jansen A. Cannabis in Amsterdam: a geography of hashish and marijuana. Muiderberg, Coutinho. The economics of cannabis-cultivation in Europe. Kilmer B. New Developments in Cannabis regulations. Korf D. Cannabis in Europe: dynamics and perception, policy and markets. Marihuana behind and beyond Coffeeshops. Ashgate Press, p. Transnational Institute. Lalam N. La culture du cannabis en France et en Europe. Masson C. Mauss M. Essai sur le don. Presses universitaires de France. National Police Chiefs' Council, UK National problem profile: Commercial cultivation of cannabis. Report, London. Obradovic I. Ortega Dolz P. El Pais , Madrid, 2 February. Pardal M. Potter, G. In Korf D. Potter G. The globalization of cannabis cultivation. Global patterns of domestic cannabis cultivation: sample characteristics and patterns of growing across eleven countries. In Werse B. Springer VS, Wiesbaden, p. Silverstone D. Farmers, factories and funds: organised crime and illicit drugs cultivation within the British Vietnamese community. Global crime \[Online\], vol. SOCA, The UK threat assessment of serious organised crime, year Toufik A. Approvisionnement et prix. In Costes J. UNODC, World Drug Report. Weinberger D. Criminal networks and indoor cannabis in Europe: has the phenomenon reached France? Weisheit RA. Domestic marijuana: A neglected industry. Wesport, CT, Greenwood Press. Zhilla F. Organised Crime, Threat Assesment in Albania. Open Society Foundation for Albania, p. The increase in the price of herbal cannabis has been exclusively linked to Sinsemilla, while resin prices have remained stable and are trending downwards. Now, all-female seeds are available and can be grown without risking male plants, but all-female plants can and will be seeded if male pollen reaches them, especially in outdoor cultivation. Aware of the possibilities offered by developing sinsemilla , some Canadian criminals of Asian origins supposedly decided to export this method to Europe, specifically to the United Kingdom. Emerging phenomena refer either to new phenomena or to existing phenomena that have not yet been detected by other observation systems. David Weinberger, david. He recently published: - Gandilhon M. International Journal on Criminology , vol. Afghan opiates along the northern route. Michel Gandilhon, Michel. Gandilhon ofdt. Jalpa Shah, jalpa. She recently published: - Janssen E. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , January, p. Chemsex experiences: narratives of pleasure. Drugs and Alcohol Today , vol. European journal of public health \[Online\], June. Nacer Lalam, nacer. He recently published: - Lalam N. Payback - towards a EU data management system for seized assets. In Clay T. Le faux monnayage en France, acteurs et organisations. Voir la notice dans le catalogue OpenEdition. Navigation — Plan du site. Sur le Champ. Index par rubriques : Sur le Champ - Sur le Terrain. Plan Introduction. The ongoing transformation of the European cannabis supply. A shift among resin-centric countries. Beginning with the Dutch hub. From an inner market to northern Europe. Balloon effect: Foreign resettlement and counselling. Contemporary players in European mass production. France: A market in the making? The growing role of mafias. Introduction 1 Cannabis is by far the most frequently used illegal psychoactive substance in Europe. The ongoing transformation of the European cannabis supply 5 During the last 20 years, the number of cannabis plantations discovered in Europe has increased significantly. A shift among resin-centric countries 6 Even in historically resin-centric countries, such as France, Spain, and, to a lesser extent, Italy, recent cannabis herbal seizures show that the cannabis resin hegemony tends to decrease. Illustration 1 — Seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis, or more recent year Agrandir Original jpeg, 76k. Now, all-female seeds are available and can be grown Bibliographie Afsahi K. Haut de page. Auteurs David Weinberger David Weinberger, david. Michel Gandilhon Michel Gandilhon, Michel. Jalpa Shah Jalpa Shah, jalpa. Suivez-nous Flux RSS. Dans tout OpenEdition. Accueil Catalogue des revues OpenEdition Search. Tout OpenEdition. OpenEdition Freemium.

Nimes buying Cannabis