Neologism in modern English. Дипломная (ВКР). Английский.
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THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTANUZBEK STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITYENGLISH PHILOLOGY FACULTYLEXICOLOGY DEPARTMENT
QUALIFICATION PAPERIN MODERN ENGLISH
Written by the student Nosirova Aziza: Umarova M.V.
.1 Neologisms. Their meanings and division by their structure
.2 The appearance of neologisms during the English Renaissance
.1 Sociolinguistic aspects of mathematical education based on neologisms
.2 Neologisms from the point of view of semantic and phonetic factors
.3 Differentiation with respect to Time Axis of neologisms (based on word - building)list of the used literature
Neologisms are the main problem of modern scientific research. A lot of new objects and processes are continually created in technology. We can find new ideas and variations in social life, science. Neologisms can be defined as newly coined lexical units that acquire new sense. Peter Newmark proposed to review twelve types of neologisms and discuss the translation of particular instances by the way of the appropriate contextual factors. Every time neologisms appeared in our life. The 16 th century was the period of the great course in literature called Renaissance . A lot of writers used new words in their poems and stories in order to enrich the English language. But some of neologisms are short-lived. They appeared and disappeared.
The subject matter of the qualification paper is lexical-semantic features of neologisms in modern English.
The object of the research work is the types of neologisms: the old words with new senses, derived words, abbreviations, collocations, new coinages.
The main aim of this work is to describe neologisms by their structure, to give examples of neologisms of old and new senses, to compare their meanings, to describe neologisms from the point of view of phonetic factors and semantics.
The following tasks have been solved in our qualification paper:
1. The contextual factors and comparative procedures of neologisms (all factors are in the frame of reference to compare neologisms) page 10.
. To show examples of neologisms according to their structure in some languages.
The actuality of this theme is that neologisms are very important in our life, especially now, because we have a development of science and technology, the new courses in the field of literature, art and music etc. And there are a lot of new words created in different fields. All these mean that the actuality of this theme is very important. Sometimes people even don t know the meaning of some abbreviations because they are new. Indeed, sometimes with the abbreviations such as AIDS, the unabbreviated form may be so specialized that it is unknown to most people - a point not missed by the compilers of quiz games, who regularly catch people out with a well-known abbreviations and another types of neologisms.
The result achieved and their novelty . Lexical-semantic features of neologisms in modern English, which more distinguished as the whole unit being in the mutual connection, have been studied. As the result of the investigation of patterns the new data of structural and semantic properties of the analyzed neologisms which determine the criteria of including frame groups into the microsystem have been revealed. Description of neologisms was conducted taking into account the active interaction of a person with objective reality, while word perception is connected with subjective assessment and has reflection on the language of the certain society.
The theoretical meaning . This theme is not so spread, but a lot of language scientists describe neologisms in their books. It is a very interesting theme to study. New notions come into being, requiring new words to name them. Sometimes a new is introduced for a thing or notion that continues to exist, and the older name ceases to be used. The number of words in a language is therefore not constant; the increase as a rule, more than makes up for the leak-out. It means that the vocabulary of any language does not remain the same but changes constantly.
The practical value . The theme of this qualification paper can be used as an aid for lectures of lexicology and it also can be used as a topic for discussion for students of Language Universities.
The structure of the work consists of the following parts: introduction, 2 chapters, conclusion and the list of the used literature.introduction to this work is based on the choice of this theme, the actuality of the aim and specific problems. Also considered are the theoretical meaning and the practical value of this work.first chapter shows the division of neologisms by their structure.the second chapter the appearance of neologisms during the English Renaissance is considered.the third chapter the types of the neologisms were described.forth chapter shows neologisms from the point view of semantic and phonetic factors.fifth chapter studies sociolinguistic aspects of mathematical education based on neologisms.sixth chapter studies neologisms as a word-building.conclusion generalizes all the results of the work and forms its primary conclusions.
.1 NEOLOGISMS. THEIR MEANING AND DIVISION BY THEIR STRUCTURE
Neologism - 1) The use of new words or old words with new meaning: His particular grievance was neologisms… even the newspaper, he complained, had got into the habit of using the adjective off-coloured - properly applied only to certain diamonds - to describe the pigmentation of half-caste people _New Yorker);
) New word or expression or a new meaning for an old word: Such neologisms are clipped words like lube for lubricating oil and co-ed for coeducational; back-formations like to televise (1931) from television…; artificial or made-up formations like carborundum, cellophane and pianola (Simeon Patter);
) The introduction of new view of doctrines, especially on religious subjects (The world encyclopedia).are perhaps the non-literary and the professional translator s biggest problem. New object and processes are continually created in technology. New ideas and variations on feelings come from the media. Terms from the social sciences, slang, dialect coming into the mainstream of language, transferred words, make up the rest. A few years ago, three hundred new words were said to be counted in four successive numbers of the French weekly language express. It has been stated that each language acquires three thousand new words annually. In fact, neologisms cannot be quantified, since so many hover between acceptance and oblivion and many are short-lived individual creations. What is obvious is that their number is increasing steeply and as we become more language as well as self-conscious, articles, books and specialist and general dictionaries devoted to them appear more commonly. Since they usually arise first in a response to a particular need, a majority of them have a single meaning and can therefore be translated out of context, but many of them soon acquire new (and sometimes lose the old) meanings in the Target Language.can be defined as newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense. Unless they are opaque, obscure and possibly cacophonous (compare yum and yuck ), neologisms usually attract and please everyone, but purists are so attached to Graeco-Latin conventions. (Once there was a fuss about oracy) that they jib at so-called violations of English grammar ( who did you get it from? ). Unlike the French, the English have no basis from which to attack new words. Most people like neologisms and so does the media and commercial interests exploit this liking. Multinationals with their ingenious advertising, make efforts to convert their brand names (Coke, Tipp-Ex, Tesa, Bic, Schweppes, etc.) into eponyms (i.e. any word derived from a proper noun including acronyms) and in appropriate cases you have to resist this attempt when you translate.is any word which is formed according to the productive structural patterns or borrowed from another language and felt by the speakers as something new. Example: tape-recorder, supermarket, V-day (Victory day). The research of cosmic space by the Soviet people gave birth to new words: Sputnik, spaceship, space rocket. For that period all these words were new..Buranov and A.Muminov in their book A practical course in English lexicology (1990) said that neologisms may be divided into:
) Root words : Ex: jeep - a small light motor vehicle, zebra - street crossing place etc;
) Derived words : Ex: collaborationist - one in occupied territory works helpfully with the enemy, to accessorize - to provide with dress accessories;
) Compound : Ex: air-drop, microfilm-reader.words are as a rule monosemantic. Terms, used in various fields of science and technology make the greater part of neologisms. New words belong only to the notional parts of speech: to nouns, verbs, adjectives etc.are mainly formed by:
) Word formation (mainly production types).: -gen, -ogen: carcinogen (biological term);
ics: psycholinguistics, electronics;
) Semantic extension: heel - a tractor (old meaning: heel - the back part of foot); to screen - to classify;
) Borrowing: telecast, telestar (Greek), sputnik.also deal with metaphor. The translation is concerned with certain particular problems: metaphor, synonyms; proper names, institution and cultural terms, grammatical, lexical and referential ambiguity, clishй, quotations; cultural focus, overlap and distance, idiolect; neologisms; jargon, the four categories of key terms.can be categorized as:)formal - completely new words. These are rare - the locus classicus is the 17th century word for gas (from chaos) - in the semantic translation. If they are original, they should be transcribed, and recreated, if recently coined. Brand names should be transcribed or given their TL brand names;)eponyms - recently based on proper names, including inventors and names of firms and towns. (For the purposes of translation theory at any rate, I am extending the meaning and area of eponym to include all instances of transferred use of proper names, e.g. macadamise, Stalingrad, academic. The secondary meaning of antonomasia (use of a proper name to express a general idea) is also included within my definition of eponym. The translator often has to be careful not to transcribe these (boycotter, but not limoger) and in particular beware of the Western nations chauvinism about their medical vocabulary (Roentgen, Graves, Hodgkin, Wilson etc).;)derived - formed with production prefixes (i.e. de-, mis-, non-, pre-, pro-) and suffixes (e.g. -ism, -ize, -ization), e.g. misdefine, non-event, encyclopaedism, taxon, paraclinique, etc. If such neologisms are transparently comprehensible, the translator can cautiously naturalise them, assuming that Latin and Greek roots are acceptable in the TL - particularly in technological texts;)new collocations, e.g. urban guerrilla, unsocial hours, route fleurie, ouvrier spйcialisй (skilled worker). Normally it is unwise to attempt a loan or through translation unless the translator is officially authorized to do so, otherwise he has to normalise. Is scenic route acceptable for route fleurie?)phrasal (nouns or verbs) - trade-off, zero-in, etc. The translator has to normalise these in the TL usually by translating into two or three words;)acronyms (now a translation label for any combination of initial letters or syllables, and apparently the most productive element in European languages). International acronyms are usually translated (e.g. EEC, CEE, EG) - national acronyms are usually retained with, if necessary, a translation of their function, rather than their meaning, e.g. CNAA-CNAA, degree-awarding body for higher education colleges (non-university) in the United Kingdom; EDF, the French Electricity Authority, ZUP, areas for priority housing development. Words derived from acronyms have to be normalised (e.g. cйgйtiste, member of CGT, the French TUC, onusien (related to UNO); smicard, minimum wage earner;)blends (portmanteau words), i.e. combinations of two words, highly productive. These either become internationalisms for at least European languages if they have Latin/Greek roots (e.g. meritocracy, tachygraph, eurocrat, bionics, many medical terms) or they are borrowed (e.g. sovkhoz, sovnarkom, sovpreme) or adopted (e.g. motel). If no recognized equivalent exists they should be translated (e.g. Abkьft, mania for abbreviations, ecotage, environment cult, but workaholic ergomane (?)). Opaque blends such as ruckus should where possible have both components (ruction, rumpus) translated;)semantic, old words with new meanings, e.g. sophisticated, viable, credible, gay, base (F), Base (G). These should be normalised (i.e. translated by a normal word) but base should perhaps replace the patronizing rank and file and the excruciating grassroots, as an old word with a new meaning (cf. chalk face);)abbreviations (shortened form of word). These are commoner in French and German than English: e.g. Uni, Philo, Beeb, vibes, bac, Huma; they are normalised (i.e. translated unabbreviated), unless there is a recognized equivalent (e.g. bus, metro, plus sci-tech terms)..Newmark proposes to review twelve types of neologisms and discuss the translation of particular instances by way of the appropriate contextual factors. P.Newmark is a professor and he has many years of experience in teaching translation techniques. In the below frame you can see types, contextual factors and translation procedures for the translation of neologisms.
Neologisms. These are very common in newspaper vocabulary. The newspaper is very quick to react to any new development in the life of society, in science and technology. Hence, neologisms make their way into the language of the newspaper very easily and often even spring up on newspaper pages, e.g. lunik, a splash-down (the act of bringing a spacecraft to a water surface), a teach-in (a form of campaigning through heated political discussion), backlash or white backlash (a violent reaction of American racists to the Negroes' struggle for civil rights), frontlash (a vigorous antiracist movement), stop-go policies (contradictory, indecisive and inefficient policies).above-listed peculiarities of brief news items are the basic vocabulary parameters of English newspaper style.vocabulary of brief news items is for the most part devoid of emotional colouring. Some papers, however, especially those classed among "mass" or "popular" papers, tend to introduce emotionally coloured lexical units into essentially matter-of-fact news stories, e.g.
"Health Minister Kenneth Robinson made this shock announcement yesterday in the Commons." (Daily Mirror)
"Technicians at the space base here are now working flat out to prepare GeAiini 6 for next Monday's blast-off." (Daily Mail)
"Defense Secretary Roy Mason yesterday gave a rather frosty reception in the Commons to the latest proposal for a common defense policy for all EEC countries." (Morning Star)as vocabulary is, it is not so much the words and phrases used in brief news items that distinguish them from other forms of newspaper writing. The vocabulary groups listed above are also commonly found in headlines and newspaper articles. The basic peculiarities of news items lie in their syntactical structure.the reporter is obliged to be brief, he naturally tries to cram all his facts into the space allotted. This tendency predetermines the peculiar composition of brief news items and the syntactical structure, of the sentences. The size of brief news items varies from one sentence to several (short) paragraphs. And generally, the shorter the news item, |\ the more complex its syntactical structure.following grammatical peculiarities of brief news items are of paramount importance, and may be regarded as their grammatical parameters.
The English language is very rich in neologisms - the word has been created recently and perhaps will not live in the language for a long time. It is very seldom that we find equivalent for the translation of neologisms and for the most part we use descriptive translation and word-for-word translation /people of good will, top level talks.usually make out the meaning of the new words with the help of the context, but it is also necessary to take into consideration the way of their formation.
The frame of reference for the translation of neologisms
TypeContextual factorsTranslation proceduresExisting lexical items with new senses. Words. Collocations New forms New coinages Derived words (including blends) Abbreviations Collocations Eponyms Phrasal words Transferred words (new and old referents) Acronyms (new and old referents) Pseudo-neologisms Internationalisms1.Value and purpose of neolog 2. Importance of neolog to a) SL culture; b) TL culture; c) general 3. Recency 4. Frequency 5. Likely duration 6. Translator s authority 7. Recognized translation 8. Existence of referents in TL culture 9. Transparency or opaqueness of neolog 10. Type of text 11. Readership 12. Setting 13. Fashion, clique commercial 14. Euphony 15. Is neolog likely to become internationalism? 16. Is neolog (acronym) being formed for prestige reasons? 17. Milien 18. Status and currency of neologism in SL 19. Is neolog in competition with others?Transference (with inverted commas) TL neologisms (with composites) TL derived word Naturalisation Recognised TL translation Functional term Descriptive term Literal translation Translation procedure combinations (coup lets etc.) Through-translation Internationalism
Neologisms. These are very common in newspaper vocabulary. The newspaper is very quick to react to any new development in the life of society, in science and technology. Hence, neologisms make their way into the language of the newspaper very easily and often even spring up on newspaper pages, e.g. lunik, a splash-down (the act of bringing a spacecraft to a water surface), a teach-in (a form of campaigning through heated political discussion), backlash or white backlash (a violent reaction of American racists to the Negroes' struggle for civil rights), frontlash (a vigorous antiracist movement), stop-go policies (contradictory, indecisive and inefficient policies).above-listed peculiarities of brief news items are the basic vocabulary parameters of English newspaper style.vocabulary of brief news items is for the most part devoid of emotional colouring. Some papers, however, especially those classed among "mass" or "popular" papers, tend to introduce emotionally coloured lexical units into essentially matter-of-fact news stories, e.g.
"Health Minister Kenneth Robinson made this shock announcement yesterday in the Commons." (Daily Mirror)
"Technicians at the space base here are now working flat out to prepare GeAiini 6 for next Monday's blast-off." (Daily Mail)
"Defence Secretary Roy Mason yesterday gave a rather frosty reception in the Commons to the latest proposal for a common defence policy for all EEC countries." (Morning Star)as vocabulary is, it is not so much the words and phrases used in brief news items that distinguish them from other forms of newspaper writing. The vocabulary groups listed above are also commonly found in headlines and newspaper articles. The basic peculiarities of news items lie in their syntactical structure.the reporter is obliged to be brief, he naturally tries to cram all his facts into the space allotted. This tendency predetermines the peculiar composition of brief news items and the syntactical structure ^,of the sentences. The size of brief news items varies from one sentence to several (short) paragraphs. And generally, the shorter the news item, |\ the more complex its syntactical structure.following grammatical peculiarities of brief news items are of paramount importance, and may be regarded as their grammatical parameters.) Complex sentences with a developed system of clauses, e. g.
"Mr. Boyd-Carpenter, Chief Secretary to the Treasury and Paymaster-General (Kingston-upon-Thames), said he had been asked what was meant by the statement in the Speech that the position of war pensioners and those receiving national insurance benefits would be kept under close review." (The Times)
"There are indications that BO AC may withdraw - threats of all-out dismissals for pilots who restrict flying hours, a spokesman for the British Airline Pilots' association said yesterday," (Morning Star)) Verbal constructions (infinitive, participial, gerundial) and verbal noun constructions, e.g.
"Mr. Nobusuke Kishi, the former Prime Minister of Japan, has sought to set an example to the faction-ridden Governing Liberal Democratic Party by announcing the disbanding of his own faction numbering 47 of the total of 295 conservative members of the Lower House of the Diet." (The Times)) Syntactical complexes, especially the nominative with the infinitive. These constructions are largely used to avoid mentioning the source of information or to shun responsibility for the facts reported, e. g.
"The condition of Lord Samuel, aged 92, was said last night to be a 'little better.'" (The Guardian)
"A petrol bomb is believed to have been exploded against the grave of Cecil Rhodes in the Matopos." (The Times)) Attributive noun groups are another powerful means of effecting brevity in news items, e.g. 'heart swap patient' (Morning Star), 'the national income and expenditure figures' (The Times), 'Labour backbench decision' (Morning Star), 'Mr. Wilson's HMS fearless package deal' (Morning Star).) Specific word-order. Newspaper tradition, coupled with the rigid rules of sentence structure in English, has greatly affected the word-order of brief news items. The word-order in one-sentence news paragraphs and in what are called "leads" (the initial sentences in longer news items) is more or less fixed. Journalistic practice has developed what is called the "five-w-and-h-pattern rule" (who-what-why-how-where-when)and for a long time strictly adhered to it. In terms of grammar this fixed sentence structure may be expressed in the following manner: Subject-Predicate (+Object)-Adverbial modifier of reason (manner)- Adverbial modifier..of place-4Adverbial modifier of time, e.g.
"A neighbour's peep through a letter box led to the finding of a woman dead from gas and two others semiconscious in a block of council flats in Eccles New Road, Salford, Lanes., yesterday." (The Guardian)has been repeatedly claimed by the authors of manuals of journalistic writing that the "five-w-arid4i" structure was the only right pattern of sentence structure to use in news reports. Facts, however, disprove this contention. Statistics show that there are approximately as many cases in which the traditional word-order is violated as those in which it is observed. It is now obvious that the newspaper has developed new sentence patterns not typical of other styles. This observation refers, firstly, to the position of the adverbial-modifier of definite time. Compare another pattern typical of brief news sentence structure:
"Derec Heath, 43, yesterday left Falmouth for the third time in his attempt to cross the Atlantic in a 12ft dinghy." (Morning Star)
"Brighton council yesterday approved а Ј 22,500 scheme to have parking meters operating in the centre of the town by March." (The Times)and some other unconventional sentence patterns have become a common practice with brief news writers.are some other, though less marked, tendencies in news item writing of modifying well-established grammatical norms. Mention should be made of occasional disregard for the sequence of tenses rule, e.g.
"The committee -which was investigating the working of the 1969 Children and Young Persons Act - said that some school children in remand centres are getting only two hours lessons a day." (Morning Star)is ordinarily looked upon as a violation of grammar rules in any other kind of writing appears to bЈ a functional peculiarity of newspaper style.
1.2 THE APPEARANCE OF NEOLOGISMS DURING THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE
the 16 th century there was a flood of new publications in English, prompted by a renewed interest in the classical languages and literatures, and in the rapidly developing fields of science, medicine, and the arts. This period, from the time of Caxton until around 1650, was later to be called the Renaissance , and it included the Reformation, the discoveries of Copernicum, and the European exploration of Africa and the Americas. The effects of these fresh perspectives on the English languages were immediate, far-reaching and controversial.focus of interest was vocabulary. There were no words in the language to talk accurately about the new concepts, techniques, and inventions which were coming from Europe, and so writers began to borrow them. Most of the words which entered the language at the time were taken from Latin, with a good number from Greek, French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. Then, as the period of word-wide exploration got under way, words came into English from over 50 other languages, including several indigenous languages of North America, Africa, and Asia. Some words came into English directly; others came by way of an intermediate language. Many came indirectly from Latin or Italian via French.writers, such as Thomas Elyot, went out of their way to find new words, in order (as they saw it) to enrich the language. They saw their role as enabling the new learning to be brought within the reach of the English public-whether this was access to the old classical texts, or to the new fields of science, technology, and medicine. There were many translations of classical works during the 16 th century, and thousand of Latin and Greek terms were introduced, as translators searched for an English equivalent and could not find one. Some, indeed, felt that English was in any case not an appropriate vehicle for the expression of the new learning. English, in this view, did not compare well with the tried and tested standards of Latin or Greek, especially in such fields as theology or medicine. It was a language fit for the street, but not for the library.as now, the influx of foreign vocabulary attracted bitter criticism, and people leaped to the language s defense. Purists opposed the new inkhorn terms, condemning them for obscurity and for interfering with the development of native English vocabulary. Some writers (notably, the poet Edmund Spenser) attempted to revive obsolete English words instead - what were sometimes called Chaucerisms - and to make us of little-known words from English dialects. Algate ( always ), sicker ( certainly ), and yblent ( confused ) are examples. The scholar John Cheke used English equivalents for classical terms whenever he could, such as crossed for crucified and gainrising for resurrection .increase in foreign borrowings is the most distinctive linguistic sign of the Renaissance in English. Purist opinions did not, in the event, stem the influx of new words - nor have it ever, in the history of this language.
Some Renaissance loan words in English
From Latin and Greek, adapt, agile, alienate, allusion, anachronism, anonymous, appropriate, assassinate, atmosphere, autograph, benefit, capsule, catastrophe, chaos, climax, conspicuous, contradictory, crisis, criterion, critic, delirium, denunciation, disability, disrespect, emancipate, emphasis, encyclopedia, enthusiasm, epilepsy, eradicate, exact, exaggerate, excavate, excursion, exist, expectation, expensive, explain, external, extinguish, fact, glottis, habitual, halo, harass, idiosyncrasy, immaturity, impersonal, inclemency, jocular, larynx, lexicon, lunar, malignant, monopoly, monosyllable, necessitate, obstruction, pancreas, parasite, parenthesis, pathetic, pneumonia, relaxation, relevant, scheme, skeleton, soda, species, system, tactics, temperature, tendon, thermometer, tibia, tonic, transcribe, ulna, utopian, vacuum, virus.or via French, anatomy, battery, bayonet, bigot, bizarre, chocolate, colonel, comrade, detail, docility, duel, entrance, equip, explore, grotesque, invite, moustache, muscle, naturalized, passport, pioneer, probability, progress, shock, surpass, ticket, tomato, vase, vogue, volunteer.or via Italian, balcony, ballot, cameo, carnival, concerto, cupola, design, fuse, giraffe, grotto, lottery, macaroni, opera, piazza, portico, rocket, solo, sonata, sonnet, soprano, stanza, stucco, trill, violin, volcanoor via Spanish and Portuguese
Alligator, anchovy, apricot, armada, banana, barricade, bravado, cannibal, canoe, cockroach, cocoa, corral, desperado, embargo, guitar, hammock, hurricane, maize, mosquito, mulatto, negro, potato, port (wine), rusk, sombrero, tank, tobacco, yamother languages(Malay), bazaar (Persian), caravan (Persian), coffee (Turkish), cruise (Dutch), curry (Tamil), easel (Dutch), flannel (Welsh), guru (Hindi), harem (Arabic), horde(Turkish), keelhaul (Dutch), ketchup (Malay), kiosk (Turkish), knapsack (Dutch), landscape (Dutch), pariah (Tamil), raccoon (Algonquian), rouble (Russian), sago (Malay), sheikh (Arabic), shekel (Hebrew), shogun (Japanese), troll (Norwegian), trousers (Irish Gaelic), turban (Persian), wampum (Algonquian), yacht (Dutch), yoghurt (Turkish).
Anglo-Saxon forms, borrowings, and the use of affixes account for most of what appears within the English lexicon, but they do not tell the whole story. People do some creative, even bizarre things with vocabulary, from time to time, and a fascinating topic in lexicology is to examine just what they get up
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