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Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Nude (disambiguation), Naked (disambiguation) and Birthday suit (disambiguation). For the preference for nudity in non-sexualized social settings, see Naturism.
Nudity is a state of being in which a human is not wearing clothing or specifically is not covering the genitals.[1] In some societies, partial nudity is defined as not covering other parts of the body that are deemed to be sexual. Worldwide, current social norms vary from banning nudity except in complete privacy to the acceptance of public nudity as a natural human state.
Nakedness, or the loss of body fur, was one of the physical characteristics that marked the biological evolution of modern humans from their hominini ancestors. Adaptations related to hairlessness contributed to the increase in brain size, bipedalism, and the variation in human skin color. Although often used interchangeably, "naked" and "nude" are also used to distinguish between the various meanings of being unclothed.
It is generally accepted that the widespread adoption of clothing occurred as people migrated to climates that required protection from the elements, or when ice age climate change required adaptation to cold. Humans that remained in tropical climates continued to be naked, or minimally clothed. While estimates vary, for at least 90,000 years anatomically modern humans wore no clothing, the invention of which was part of the transition from being not only anatomically but behaviorally modern. As societies developed from being hunter-gatherers to being agrarian, clothing became part of cultural evolution as individuals and groups became differentiated by status and class. In early civilizations such as Egypt; slaves, children, and others with low status often continued to be naked.
Through much of history until the modern era, people were unclothed in public by necessity or convenience when exercising for work or sport; or when bathing or swimming; often but not always in groups segregated by sex. The modern understanding of nudity is culturally complex due to different meanings given various states of undress in differing social situations. In any particular society, these meanings are defined in relation to being properly dressed, not in relation to the specific body parts being exposed. Nakedness and clothing are connected to many cultural categories such as identity, privacy, social status and moral behavior.[2] Synonyms and euphemisms for nudity abound, including "birthday suit", "in the altogether" and "in the buff". "In a state of nature" is also used by philosophers to refer to the state of humans before the existence of organized societies.[3]
In Western societies, there are two cultural traditions relating to nudity in various contexts. The first tradition comes from the ancient Greeks, who saw the naked body as a natural state and as essentially positive in the context of athletics, ritual, and the arts. The second is based upon the Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—which have viewed being naked as shameful and essentially negative. The interaction between these traditions has resulted in Western ambivalence toward nudity. In America nudity is more likely to be seen sexually, while in much of Europe, there is more openness to non-sexual nudity in recreation and daily life. In Africa, there is a sharp contrast between the attitude toward nudity in Islamic countries and the attitude toward nudity in certain sub-Saharan countries that never abandoned, or are reasserting, precolonial norms. In Asia, the norms regarding public nudity are in keeping with the cultural values of social propriety and human dignity. Rather than being perceived as immoral or shameful, nakedness is perceived as a breach of etiquette.
Generally, social norms regarding nudity are different for men than they are for women. It was not until the 17th century in Europe that the female breast became a part of the body that must be covered in public. It is only in the contemporary era that the nudity of children represents anything but innocence. Individuals may intentionally violate norms regarding nudity; those without power may use nudity as a form of protest, and those with power may impose nakedness on others as a form of punishment.
The history of nudity involves social attitudes to nakedness of the human body in different cultures in history. The widespread habitual use of clothing is one of the changes that mark the end of the Neolithic and the beginning of civilization.
Two evolutionary processes are significant in human appearance; first the biological evolution of early hominids from being covered in fur to being effectively hairless, followed by the cultural evolution of adornments and clothing.
The first member of the genus homo to be hairless was Homo erectus, originating about 1.6 million years ago.[4] The dissipation of body heat remains the most widely accepted evolutionary explanation for the loss of body hair in early members of the genus homo, the surviving member of which is modern humans.[5][6][7] Less hair, and an increase in sweat glands, made it easier for their bodies to cool when they moved from shady forest to open savanna. This change in environment also resulted in a change in diet, from largely vegetarian to hunting. Pursuing game on the savanna also increased the need for regulation of body heat.[8][9] Anthropologist and palaeobiologist Nina Jablonski posits that the ability to dissipate excess body heat through eccrine sweating helped make possible the dramatic enlargement of the brain, the most temperature-sensitive human organ.[10] Thus the loss of fur was also a factor in further adaptations, both physical and behavioral, that differentiated humans from other primates. Some of these changes are thought to be the result of sexual selection, which was first proposed by Darwin in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. By selecting more hairless mates, humans accelerated changes initiated by natural selection. Sexual selection may also account for the remaining human hair in the pubic area and armpits, which are sites for pheromones, while hair on the head continued to provide protection from the sun.[11]
A divergent explanation of humans' relative hairlessness holds that ecroparasites (such as ticks) residing in fur became problematic as humans became hunters living in larger groups with a "home base". Nakedness would also make the lack of parasites apparent to prospective mates.[12] However, this theory is inconsistent with the abundance of parasites that continue to exist in the remaining patches of human hair.[13]
The last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees was only partially bipedal, often using their front legs for locomotion. Other primate mothers do not need to carry their young because there is fur for them to cling to, but the loss of fur encouraged full bipedalism, allowing the mothers to carry their babies with one or both hands. The combination of hairlessness and upright posture may also explain the enlargement of the female breasts as a sexual signal.[7]
Another theory is that the loss of fur also promoted mother-child attachment based upon the pleasure of skin-to-skin contact. This may explain the more extensive hairlessness of female humans compared to males. Nakedness also affects sexual relationships as well, the duration of human intercourse being many times the duration of any other primates.[13]
With the loss of fur, darker, high-melanin skin evolved as a protection from ultraviolet radiation damage.[14] As humans migrated outside of the tropics, varying degrees of depigmentation evolved in order to permit UVB-induced synthesis of previtamin D3.[15][16] The relative lightness of female compared to male skin in a given population may be due to the greater need for women to produce more vitamin D during lactation.[17]
Some of the technology for what is now called clothing may have originated to make other types of adornment, including jewelry, body paint, tattoos, and other body modifications, "dressing" the naked body without concealing it.[18][19] According to Leary and Buttermore, body adornment is one of the changes that occurred in the late Paleolithic (40,000 to 60,000 years ago) in which humans became not only anatomically modern, but also behaviorally modern and capable of self-reflection and symbolic interaction.[20] More recent studies place the use of adornment at 77,000 years ago in South Africa, and 90,000—100,000 years ago in Israel and Algeria.[21]
The origin of complex, fitted clothing required the invention of fine stone knives for cutting skins into pieces, and the eyed needle for sewing. This was done by Cro-Magnons, who migrated to Europe around 35,000 years ago.[22] The Neanderthal occupied the same region, but became extinct in part because they could not sew, but draped themselves with crudely cut skins—based upon their simple stone tools—which did not provide the warmth needed to survive as the climate grew colder in the Last Glacial Period.[23] In addition to being less functional, the simple clothing would not have been habitually worn by Neanderthal due to their being more cold-tolerant than Homo sapiens, and would not have acquired the secondary functions of decoration and promoting modesty.[24]
The earliest archeological evidence of fabric clothing is inferred from representations in figurines in the southern Levant dated between 11,700 and 10,500 years ago.[25] The current empirical evidence for the origin of clothing is from a 2010 study published in Molecular Biology and Evolution. That study indicates that the habitual wearing of clothing began at some point in time between 83,000 years ago and 170,000 years ago based upon a genetic analysis indicating when clothing lice diverged from their head louse ancestors. This information suggests that the use of clothing likely originated with anatomically modern humans in Africa prior to their migration to colder climates, allowing them to do so.[26] A 2017 study published in Science estimated that anatomically modern humans evolved 260,000 to 350,000 years ago.[27] Thus, all humans were naked in prehistory for at least 90,000 years or as much as 267,000 years.
In ancient Mesopotamia, most people owned a single item of clothing, and being naked meant being at the bottom of the social scale, lacking in dignity and status.[28]
For the average person, clothing changed little in ancient Egypt from the Early Dynastic Period, (3150–2686 BCE) until the Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 BCE). Although the genitals of adults were generally covered, nakedness in ancient Egypt was not a violation of any social norm, but more often a convention indicating lack of wealth; those that could afford to do so covered more.[29] Both men and women wore skirts called schenti—which evolved from loincloths and resembled modern kilts. Slaves and laborers were nude or wore loincloths. Only women of the upper classes wore kalasiris, a dress of loose draped or translucent linen which came from just above or below the breasts to the ankles.[30] Women entertainers performed naked. Children went without clothing until puberty, at about age 12.[31] It was not until the later periods, in particular the New Kingdom (1550–1069 BCE), that functionaries in the households of the wealthy also began wearing more refined dress, and upper-class women wore elaborate dresses and ornamentation which covered their breasts. These later styles are often shown in film and TV as representing ancient Egypt in all periods.[30]
Male nudity was celebrated in ancient Greece to a greater degree than any culture before or since. They considered embarrassment at having to disrobe for sports a sign of barbarism.[32][33] The status of freedom, maleness, privilege, and physical virtues were asserted by discarding everyday clothing for athletic nudity.[34] With the association of the naked body with the beauty and power of the gods, nudity became a ritual costume.[35] The female nude emerged as a subject for art in the 5th century BCE, illustrating stories of women bathing both indoors and outdoors. While depictions of nude women were erotic in nature, there was no attribution of impropriety as would be the case for such images in later Western culture. However, the passive images reflected the unequal status of women in society compared to the athletic and heroic images of naked men.[36] In Sparta during the Classical period, women were also trained in athletics, and while scholars do not agree whether they also competed in the nude, the same word (gymnosis, naked or lightly clothed) was used to describe the practice. It is generally agreed that Spartan women were nude, but only for specific religious and ceremonial purposes.[37]
The Greek traditions were not maintained in the later Etruscan and Roman athletics because its public nudity became associated with homoeroticism. Roman masculinity involved prudishness and paranoia about effeminacy.[38] The toga was essential to announce the status and rank of male citizens of the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE).[39] The poet Ennius declared, "exposing naked bodies among citizens is the beginning of public disgrace". Cicero endorsed Ennius' words.[40]
In the Roman Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE), the status of the upper classes was such that public nudity was of no concern for men, and also for women if only seen by their social inferiors.[41] An exception was the Roman baths (thermae), which had many social functions.[42] Mixed nude bathing may have been standard in most public baths up to the fourth century CE.[43] The Fall of the Western Roman Empire marked many social changes, including the rise of Christianity. Early Christians generally inherited the norms of dress from Jewish traditions, with the exception of the Adamites an obscure Christian sect in North Africa originating in the second century who worshiped in the nude, professing to have regained the innocence of Adam.[44]
Clothing used in the Middle East, which loosely envelopes the entire body, changed little for centuries. In part, this consistency arises from the fact that such clothing is well-suited for the climate (protecting the body from dust storms while also allowing cooling by evaporation).[45] In the societies based upon the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), modesty generally prevailed in public, with clothing covering all parts of the body of a sexual nature. The Torah set forth laws regarding clothing and modesty (tzniut) which also separated Jews from other people in the societies they lived within.[46]
The late fourth century CE was a period of both Christian conversion and standardization of church teachings, in particular on matters of sex. A man having sex outside marriage with a respectable woman (adultery) injured third parties: her husband, father, and male relatives. His fornication with an unattached woman, likely a prostitute, courtesan or slave, was a lesser sin since it had no male victims, which in a patriarchal society might mean no victim at all.[47] The dress or nakedness of women that were not deemed respectable was also of lesser importance.[48]
In stories written in China as early as the fourth century BCE, nudity is presented as an affront to human dignity, reflecting the belief that "humanness" in Chinese society is not innate, but is earned by correct behavior. However, nakedness could also be used by an individual to express contempt for others in their presence. In other stories, the nudity of women, emanating the power of yin, could nullify the yang of aggressive forces.[49]
Nudity in mixed-gender public baths was common in Japan before the effects of Western influence, which began in the 19th century and became extensive during the American occupation after World War II. The practice continues at a dwindling number of hot springs (konyoku) outside of urban areas.[50] Another Japanese tradition was the women free-divers (ama) who for 2,000 years until the 1960s collected seaweed and shellfish wearing only loincloths. Their nakedness was not shocking, since women farmers often worked bare-breasted during the summer.[51]
The period between the ancient and modern world—approximately 500 to 1450 CE—saw an increasingly stratified society in Europe. At the beginning of the period, everyone other than the upper classes lived in close quarters and did not have the modern sensitivity to private nudity, but slept and bathed together naked as necessary.[43] Later in the period, with the emergence of a middle class, clothing in the form of fashion was a significant indicator of class, and thus its lack became a greater source of embarrassment.[52]
Until the beginning of the eighth century, Christians were baptized naked to represent that they emerged from baptism without sin. The disappearance of nude baptism in the Carolingian era marked the beginning of the sexualization of the body by Christians that had previously been associated with paganism.[53] Sects with beliefs similar to the Adamites, who worshiped naked, reemerged in the early 15th century.[54]
Although there is a common misconception that Europeans did not bathe in the Middle Ages, public bath houses—usually segregated by sex—were popular until the 16th century, when concern for the spread of disease closed many of them.[55] The Roman baths in Bath, Somerset, were rebuilt, and used by both sexes without garments until the 15th century.[56]
In Christian Europe, the parts of the body that were required to be covered in public did not always include the female breasts. In depictions of the Madonna from the 14th century, Mary is shown with one bared breast, symbolic of nourishment and loving care.[57] During a transitional period, there continued to be positive religious images of saints, but also depictions of Eve indicating shame.[58] By 1750, artistic representations of the breast were either erotic or medical. This eroticization of the breast coincided with the persecution of women as witches.[59]
The practice known as veiling of women in public predates Islam in Persia, Syria, and Anatolia. Islamic clothing for men covers the area from the waist to the knees. The Qurʾān provides guidance on the dress of women, but not strict rulings;[45] such rulings may be found in the Hadith. The rules of hijab and Sharia law defines clothing for women as covering the entire body except the face and hands. The nature of the clothing cannot be transparent, revealing what is underneath: "clothed yet naked", nor the clothing of men, such as trousers.[60] Originally, veiling applied only to the wives of Muhammad; however, veiling was adopted by all upper-class women after his death and became a symbol of Muslim identity.[61]
In the medieval period, Islamic norms became more patriarchal, and very concerned with the chastity of women before marriage a
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