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Hallucinogens are a broad category of substances encompassing drugs with diverse pharmacological, phenomenological, and adverse effects. In this chapter, the focus is on disorders caused by and exacerbated by two classes of hallucinogens. These are classic psychedelics drugs including LSD and psilocybin that exert subjective effects principally by 5HT 2A agonism and the substituted amphetamine 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA. In this chapter, the evidence regarding disorders and other adverse effects attributable to these drugs, including acute toxicity, abuse potential, persistent perceptual effects Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder , psychosis, neurotoxicity, and more, are explored. This chapter is an update from the 4th edition. Previous edition authors were Rif S. El-Mallakh, John H. Halpern and Henry David Abraham. This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access. Institutional subscriptions. Abraham, H. Visual phenomenology of the LSD flashback. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40 8 , — Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder following therapeutic ketamine: A case report. Google Scholar. Abramson, H. Tolerance development and its relationship to a theory of psychosis. The Journal of Psychology, 41 1 , 81— Production of cross-tolerance to psychosis-producing doses of lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin. The Journal of Psychology, 49 1 , — Article Google Scholar. Aldurra, G. Improvement of hallucinogen-induced persistent perception disorder by treatment with a combination of fluoxetine and olanzapine: Case report. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 21 3 , — Alles, G. Some relations between chemical structure and physiological action of mescaline and related compounds. Abramson Ed. Josiah Macey Jr. Anderson, W. Trifluoperazine for the trailing phenomenon. JAMA, 9 , — Back-Madruga, C. Neuropsychological effects of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA or ecstasy in recreational users. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 17 4 , — Article PubMed Google Scholar. Badon, L. Changes in cardiovascular responsiveness and cardiotoxicity elicited during binge administration of ecstasy. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 3 , — Baggott, M. Chemical analysis of ecstasy pills. JAMA, 17 , — Baker, E. The use of lysergic acid diethylamide LSD in psychotherapy. The Canadian Medical Association Journal, 91 , — Barre, A. Presynaptic serotonin 2A receptors modulate thalamocortical plasticity and associative learning. Barrett, F. Validation of the revised mystical experience questionnaire in experimental sessions with psilocybin. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29 11 , — Double-blind comparison of the two hallucinogens psilocybin and dextromethorphan: Effects on cognition. Psychopharmacology, 10 , — Battaglia, G. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, , — Bauer, S. Culture and the prevalence of hallucinations in schizophrenia. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52 3 , — Baumann, M. Psychopharmacology, , — Bell, D. The experimental reproduction of amphetamine psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 29 1 , Bender, L. Chromosome damage not found in leukocytes of children treated with LSD Science, , — Benningfield, M. Nature Publishing Group. Book Google Scholar. Bergman, R. Navajo peyote use: Its apparent safety. American Journal of Psychiatry, 6 , — Bhattachary, S. Psychological Medicine, 31 4 , Bogenschutz, M. Psilocybin-assisted treatment for alcohol dependence: A proof-of-concept study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29 3 , — Bonson, K. Chronic administration of serotonergic antidepressants attenuates the subjective effects of LSD in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology, 14 6 , — Borowiak, K. Psilocybin mushroom psilocybe semilanceata intoxication with myocardial infarction. Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology, 36 1—2 , 47— Brabec de Mori, B. Tracing hallucinations — Contributing to a critical ethnohistory of ayahuasca usage in the peruvian amazon B. Jungaberle, Eds. Bramness, J. Amphetamine-induced psychosis — A separate diagnostic entity or primary psychosis triggered in the vulnerable? BMC Psychiatry , Buckholtz, N. Daily LSD administration selectively decreases serotonin2 receptor binding in rat brain. European Journal of Pharmacology, 3 , — Carbonaro, T. Survey study of challenging experiences after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms: Acute and enduring positive and negative consequences. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30 12 , — Carhart-Harris, R. Pharmacological Reviews, 71 3 , — User perceptions of the benefits and harms of hallucinogenic drug use: A web-based questionnaire study. Journal of Substance Use, 15 4 , — Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: An open-label feasibility study. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3 7 , — Chen, C. Morbid risk for psychiatric disorder among the relatives of methamphetamine users with and without psychosis. Cohen, S. Lysergic acid diethylamide: Side effects and complications. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1 , 30— Prolonged adverse reactions to lysergic acid diethylamide. Archives of General Psychiatry, 8 5 , — Cooper, J. Cross-national study of diagnosis of the mental disorders: Some results from the first comparative investigation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 10S , 21— Cottler, L. Addiction, 10 , — Creighton, F. British Journal of Psychiatry, Nov , — Danforth, A. Reduction in social anxiety after MDMA-assisted psychotherapy with autistic adults: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Psychopharmacology, 11 , — Davis, A. Effects of psilocybin-assisted therapy on major depressive disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 78 5 , — De La Torre, R. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 49 2 , — Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: A preliminary report. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 37 1 , 13— Mood disorders and serotonin transporter density in ecstasy users — the influence of long-term abstention, dose, and gender. Psychopharmacology, 3—4 , — Sustained effects of ecstasy on the human brain: A prospective neuroimaging study in novel users. Brain, 11 , Treatment effects and comorbid diseases in 58 patients with visual snow. Neurology, 93 4 , e—e Ayahuasca and psychosiss. Santos Ed. Transworld Research Network. Ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, and psychosis: A systematic review of human studies. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology, 7 4 , — Droogmans, S. Possible association between 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine abuse and valvular heart disease. The American Journal of Cardiology, 9 , — Espiard, M. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder after psilocybin consumption: A case study. European Psychiatry, 20 5—6 , — Fantegrossi, W. Behavioral and neurochemical consequences of long-term intravenous self-administration of MDMA and its enantiomers by rhesus monkeys. Neuropsychopharmacology, 29 7 , — Fink, M. Prolonged adverse reactions to LSD in psychotic subjects. Archives of General Psychiatry, 15 5 , — Fisk, J. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 23 1 , 40— Gable, R. Comparison of acute lethal toxicity of commonly abused psychoactive substances. Addiction, 99 6 , — Garcia-Romeu, A. Cessation and reduction in alcohol consumption and misuse after psychedelic use. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 33 9 , — Persisting reductions in cannabis, opioid, and stimulant misuse after naturalistic psychedelic use: An online survey. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10 , Gasser, P. Safety and efficacy of lysergic acid diethylamide-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with life-threatening diseases. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 7 , — Gillin, J. Failure of n, n-dimethyltryptamine to evoke tolerance in cats. Biological Psychiatry, 7 3 , Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E. Neurotoxicity of methylenedioxyamphetamines MDMA; ecstasy in humans: How strong is the evidence for persistent brain damage? Addiction, 3 , — Impaired cognitive performance in drug free users of recreational ecstasy MDMA. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 68 6 , — Psychological effects of s -ketamine and n, n-dimethyltryptamine DMT : A double-blind, cross-over study in healthy volunteers. Pharmacopsychiatry, 38 06 , — Griffith, J. Paranoid episodes induced by drugs. Journal of the American Medical Association, , Griffiths, R. Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology, 3 , — Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: Immediate and persisting dose-related effects. Psychopharmacology, 4 , — Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial. Grinspoon, L. Psychedelic drugs reconsidered. Basic Books. Grof, S. Blocking of LSD reaction by premedication with niamid. Activitas Nervosa Superior, 7 3 , Gukasyan, N. Journal of Psychopharmacology , Hall, H. Synapse, 38 4 , — Halpern, J. Residual neuropsychological effects of illicit 3,4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA in individuals with minimal exposure to other drugs. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 75 2 , Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among native americans. Biological Psychiatry, 58 8 , — Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 36 , — Hartogsohn, I. Constructing drug effects: A history of set and setting. Drug Science, Policy and Law, 3 , Heekeren, K. Prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex and its attentional modulation in the human s-ketamine and n,n-dimethyltryptamine DMT models of psychosis. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 21 3 , — Hendricks, P. Classic psychedelic use is associated with reduced psychological distress and suicidality in the United States adult population. Hermle, L. Hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology, 2 5 , — Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder HPPD and flashback-are they identical. Journal of Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, 1 , 2. Horowitz, M. Flashbacks: Recurrent intrusive images after the use of LSD. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 4 , — Hughes, M. Trazodone-induced palinopsia. Archives of Ophthalmology, 3 , — Hysek, C. Ihde-Scholl, T. Mitrazapine-associated palinopsia. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62 5 , Isbell, H. Comparison of the reactions induced by psilocybin and LSD in man. Psychopharmacologia, 1 1 , 29— Jay, M. Mescaline: A global history of the first psychedelic. Yale University Press. Psychonauts: Drugs and the making of the modern mind. Johnson, M. Human hallucinogen research: Guidelines for safety. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 22 6 , — Psilocybin dose-dependently causes delayed, transient headaches in healthy volunteers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1—3 , — Pilot study of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addiction. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 28 11 , — The abuse potential of medical psilocybin according to the 8 factors of the controlled substances act. Neuropharmacology, , — Kirkpatrick, M. A direct comparison of the behavioral and physiological effects of methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA in humans. Psychopharmacology, 1 , Kish, S. Brain, 6 , Klock, J. Coma, hyperthermia, and bleeding associated with massive LSD overdose a report of eight cases. Clinical Toxicology, 8 2 , — Kometer, M. Psilocybin biases facial recognition, goal-directed behavior, and mood state toward positive relative to negative emotions through different serotonergic subreceptors. Biological Psychiatry, 72 11 , — Koslow, T. Why taking psychedelics while on antidepressants could make treatment ineffective: DoubleBlind. Double Blind Magazine. Kovacic, B. Tolerance and limited cross-tolerance to the effects of n, n-dimethyltryptamine DMT and lysergic acid diethylamide LSD on food-rewarded bar pressing in the rat. Krebs, T. Psychedelics and mental health: A population study. PLoS One, 8 8 , e Lauterbach, E. Posthallucinogen-like visual illusions palinopsia with risperidone in a patient without previous hallucinogen exposure: Possible relation to serotonin 5HT2a receptor blockade. Pharmacopsychiatry, 33 01 , 38— Lerner, A. Naltrexone treatment of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 3 , — LSD-induced hallucinogen persisting perception disorder treatment with clonidine: An open pilot study. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15 1 , 35— Clonazepam treatment of lysergic acid diethylamide-induced hallucinogen persisting perception disorder with anxiety features. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18 2 , — Benign and time-limited visual disturbances flashbacks in recent abstinent high-potency heavy cannabis smokers: A case series study. PubMed Google Scholar. Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 51 4 , — Lev-Ran, S. Clinical characteristics of individuals with schizophrenia and hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 10 2 , 79— Lieberman, J. Provocative tests with psychostimulant drugs in schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology, 91 4 , Liechti, M. Effects of MDMA on body temperature in humans. Temperature, 1 3 , — Journal of Psychopharmacology, 14 3 , — Gender differences in the subjective effects of MDMA. Psychopharmacology, 2 , — Lim, T. Internal Medicine Journal, 11 42 , — Lima, F. An epidemiological surveillance system by the UDV: Mental health recommendations concerning the religous use of hoasca. The Internationalization of Ayahuasca , December Litjens, R. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder and the serotonergic system: A comprehensive review including new MDMA-related clinical cases. Lovenberg, T. Molecular cloning and functional expression of 5-HT1E-like rat and human 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor genes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 90 6 , — Luke, D. The induction of synaesthesia with chemical agents: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology , 4. Lurie, Y. Clinical Toxicology, 50 1 , 39— Madsen, M. Psychedelic effects of psilocybin correlate with serotonin 2A receptor occupancy and plasma psilocin levels. Neuropsychopharmacology, 44 7 , — Peak experiences and the afterglow phenomenon: When and how do therapeutic effects of hallucinogens depend on psychedelic experiences? Marek, G. Physiological antagonism between 5-hydroxytryptamine2A and group II metabotropic glutamate receptors in prefrontal cortex. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 1 , 76— Markel, H. LSD flashback syndrome exacerbated by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants in adolescents. The Journal of Pediatrics, 5 , — Mas, M. Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine effects and pharmacokinetics of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in humans. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 1 , — Masters, R. The varieties of psychedelic experience Vol. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. McCann, U. Neuropsychopharmacology, 10 2 , Psychopharmacology, 4 , Neuropsychopharmacology, 30 9 , McDowell, D. MDMA: Its history and pharmacology. Psychiatric Annals, 24 3 , McGlothlin, W. Archives of General Psychiatry, 24 1 , 35— McGuire, P. Mcguire, P. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 3 , — McKenna, T. Food of the gods: A radical history of plants, drugs and human evolution. McKetin, R. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, , 26— Miech, R. Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, — Volume I, secondary school students. Mithoefer, M. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25 4 , — MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans, firefighters, and police officers: A randomised, double-blind, dose-response, phase 2 clinical trial. Lancet Psychiatry, 55 6 , — Molliver, M. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Morehead, D. Exacerbation of hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder with risperidone. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17 4 , — Morgan, M. Neuropsychopharmacology, 19 4 , Moritz, M. Ecstacy-associated hyponatremia: Why are women at risk? Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 28 9 , — Moskowitz, D. Use of haloperidol to reduce LSD flashbacks. Military Medicine, 9 , — Mueller, M. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring, 31 3 , — International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 16 4 , Mueller, F. Murphy, T. Mal de debarquement syndrome: A forgotten entity? Naditch, M. LSD flashbacks and ego functioning. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86 4 , Nichols, D. Methylenedioxyamphetamine MDA and methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA cause selective ablation of serotonergic axon terminals in forebrain: Immunocytochemical evidence for neurotoxicity. Journal of Neuroscience, 8 8 , — Organization, W. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems: Instruction manual Vol. World Health Organization. Ortiz Bernal, A. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13 , Palamar, J. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 50 1 , 88— Underreporting of ecstasy use among high school seniors in the US. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, , — Palhano-Fontes, F. Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 49 4 , — Palmieri, V. The American Journal of Medicine, 9 , — Pantoni, M. Parrott, A. Is ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, their dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity. Dancing hot on ecstasy: Physical activity and thermal comfort ratings are associated with the memory and other psychobiological problems reported by recreational MDMA users. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 21 5 , — Passie, T. Drug Science, Policy and Law, 4 , The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: A review. Patel, A. Human pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA, ecstasy after repeated doses taken 2 h apart. Pellikka, P. Carcinoid heart disease. Clinical and echocardiographic spectrum in 74 patients. Circulation, 87 4 , — Pentney, A. 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Cultural determinants of response to hallucinatory experience. Waters, F. Visual hallucinations in the psychosis spectrum and comparative information from neurodegenerative disorders and eye disease. Williams, H. Irish Journal of Medical Science, 2 , Wolbach, A. Psychopharmacologia, 3 1 , 1— Wu, L. Hallucinogen use disorders among adult users of MDMA and other hallucinogens. American Journal on Addictions, 17 5 , — Wunderli, M. Discrete memory impairments in largely pure chronic users of MDMA. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 27 10 , Young, C. Sertraline treatment of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58 2 , Download references. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to Sandeep M. Reprints and permissions. Nayak, S. In: Tasman, A. Springer, Cham. Received : 30 July Accepted : 20 June Published : 27 July Publisher Name : Springer, Cham. Print ISBN : Online ISBN : Policies and ethics. Skip to main content. Abstract Hallucinogens are a broad category of substances encompassing drugs with diverse pharmacological, phenomenological, and adverse effects. Access this chapter Log in via an institution. References Abraham, H. Google Scholar Abramson, H. Article Google Scholar Aldurra, G. Google Scholar Anderson, W. Google Scholar Bramness, J. Article Google Scholar Cottler, L. Google Scholar dos Santos, R. Google Scholar Espiard, M. Google Scholar Griffiths, R. Google Scholar Grof, S. Google Scholar Hall, H. Google Scholar Horowitz, M. Book Google Scholar Jay, M. Google Scholar Johnson, M. Google Scholar Lev-Ran, S. Article Google Scholar Lima, F. Google Scholar Litjens, R. Google Scholar McCann, U. Google Scholar McKetin, R. Google Scholar Mithoefer, M. Article Google Scholar Molliver, M. Google Scholar Morehead, D. Google Scholar Ortiz Bernal, A. Google Scholar Palamar, J. Google Scholar Saleemi, S. Google Scholar Schenk, S. Google Scholar Shankaran, M. Article Google Scholar Shulgin, A. Google Scholar Siegel, R. Google Scholar Stanton, M. Article Google Scholar Thomasius, R. Google Scholar Ungerleider, J. Article Google Scholar Uosukainen, H. Google Scholar Wallace, A. Google Scholar Download references. Johnson Authors Sandeep M. Nayak View author publications. View author publications. Rights and permissions Reprints and permissions. About this entry. Cite this entry Nayak, S. Publish with us Policies and ethics. Search Search by keyword or author Search. Navigation Find a journal Publish with us Track your research.

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