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— Catechism of the Catholic Church [38]
— Quran , Sura 5 ( Al-Ma'ida ), ayat 82–85 [41]


^ "Religion by Country 2021" .

^ "Christianity" .

^ Gardet, L.; J. Jomier (2012). "Islām". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_038 (inactive 31 May 2021). CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2021 ( link ) (subscription required)

^ Bravmann, M. M. (1977), Studies in Semitic Philology , BRILL, p. 441 , ISBN 90-04-04743-3

^ Glassé, Cyril (2001). The new encyclopedia of Islam, with introduction by Huston Smith (Édition révisée. ed.). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. p. 239. ISBN 9780759101906 .

^ McDowell, Jim, Josh; Walker, Jim (2002). Understanding Islam and Christianity: Beliefs That Separate Us and How to Talk About Them . Euguen, Oregon: Harvest House Publishers. p. 12. ISBN 9780736949910 .

^ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam , p.158

^ name=sanigosian

^ Nigosian, S.A (2004). Islam : its history, teaching and practices ([New ed.]. ed.). Indiana Univ. Press. pp. 65–80 . ISBN 0-253-21627-3 .

^ Wheeler, Brannon M. (2002). Prophets in the Quran: an introduction to the Quran and Muslim exegesis . Continuum. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8264-4956-6 .

^ "Comments about Quran Preservation in Early Islamic Sources" (PDF) .

^ Robinson, Neal (31 July 1991). Christ in Islam and Christianity . New York: State University of New York Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0791405598 .

^ Robinson, Neal (31 July 1991). Christ in Islam and Christianity . New York: State University of New York Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0791405598 .

^ Zahniser, Mathias (30 October 2008). The Mission and Death of Jesus in Islam and Christianity (Faith Meets Faith Series) . New York: Orbis Books. p. 55. ISBN 978-1570758072 .

^ "Surah An-Nisa' Verse 157 | 4:157 النساء - Quran O" . qurano.com . Retrieved 2021-06-25 .

^ Jump up to: a b "7 Things Muslims Should Know about Prophet 'Isa (as) | Muslim Hands UK" . muslimhands.org.uk . Retrieved 2021-08-15 .

^ Lambert, Gray (2013). The Leaders Are Coming! . WestBow Press. p. 287. ISBN 9781449760137 .

^ Roy H. Williams; Michael R. Drew (2012). Pendulum: How Past Generations Shape Our Present and Predict Our Future . Vanguard Press. p. 143. ISBN 9781593157067 .

^
Chronology of Prophetic Events , Fazlur Rehman Shaikh (2001) p. 50 Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.
Quran 17:105

^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān" . Encyclopædia Britannica Online . Retrieved 24 September 2013 .

^ Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths , Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.

^ Quran 17:106

^ Peters, F.E. (2003). The Words and Will of God . Princeton University Press. pp. 12–13 . ISBN 0-691-11461-7 .

^ Understanding the Qurán - Page xii, Ahmad Hussein Sakr - 2000

^ "Prophet Muhammad is the Paraclete – Jesus is Muslim" . jesus-is-muslim.net . Retrieved 2021-08-15 .

^ "Evidence from the Bible – Muhammad ﷺ is the Paraclete (Comforting Advocate)" . ihsaan . 2019-06-11 . Retrieved 2021-08-15 .

^ "Muhammad" .

^ Encyclopedia of Islam , Online ed., "Waraqah bin. Nawfal".

^ Nickel, Gordon D. ""We Will Make Peace With You": The Christians of Najrān in Muqātil's Tafsir" . Collectanea Christiana Orientalia .

^ "Al-Mizan (Al I Imran) | PDF | Quran | Islam" . Scribd . Retrieved 2021-08-15 .

^ Wilken, Robert Louis (2009). "Christianity face to face with Islam" . First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life (Journal Article): 19–. ISSN 1047-5141 . – via General OneFile (subscription required)

^ Glassé, Cyril; Smith, Huston (2003-01-01). The New Encyclopedia of Islam . Rowman Altamira. p. 429. ISBN 9780759101906 .

^ Mohammad Moinuddin Siddiqui (translator); M. al Selek (editor) (1993). The Major Sins : Arabic Text and English Translation of "Al Kaba'ir" (Muhammad Bin Uthman Adh Dhahabi) . Millat Book Centre . ISBN 1-56744-489-X . CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link ) CS1 maint: extra text: authors list ( link )

^ "The Major Sins: Al-Kaba'r" . Jannah.org .

^ International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

^ Casurella, Anthony (1 January 1983). Beiträge zur Geschichte der biblischen Exegese . Mohr. ISBN 9783161446481 – via Google Books.

^ "Who is the "Holy Spirit"? - islamqa.info" .

^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. April 16, 2000. ISBN 978-1574551099 . The Church and non-Christians #841

^ "The Smalcald Articles," in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.

^ Quran 2:62

^ Quran 5:80–84

^ Inwagen, Peter van (January 2015). "Did God Create Shapes?" . Philosophia Christi . 17 (2): 285–290. doi : 10.5840/pc201517224 . Retrieved 14 March 2021 .

^ Craig, William Lane (2015). "Response to Bridges and Van Inwagen" . Philosophia Christi . 17 (2): 291–297. doi : 10.5840/pc201517225 . Retrieved 14 March 2021 .

^ "St. John of Damascus: Critique of Islam" .

^ "St. John of Damascus: Critique of Islam" .

^ Theophanes in English, on Mohammed gives an excerpt with all pertinent text as translated by Cyril Mango

^ The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor (Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284-813). Translated with introduction and commentary by Cyril Mango and Geoffrey Greatrex, Oxford 1997. An updated version of the roger-pearse.com citation.

^ The Chronicle of Theophanes Anni Mundi 6095-6305 (A.D. 602-813) a more popularised but less rigorously studied translation of Theophanes chronicles

^ Goddard, Hugh (1 January 2000). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations . Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748610099 – via Google Books.

^ Philip Willan (2002-06-24). "Al-Qaida plot to blow up Bologna church fresco" . The Guardian .

^ Ayesha Akram (2006-02-11). "What's behind Muslim cartoon outrage" . San Francisco Chronicle .

^ ( History of Vatican II , pp. 142-43)

^ Jump up to: a b (Robinson, p. 195)

^ Lumen gentium , 16 Archived September 6, 2014, at the Wayback Machine

^ "Monash Arts" (PDF) .

^ "Muslim-Christian Dialogue - Oxford Islamic Studies Online" .

^ Thomas Marsh and Orson Hyde Affidavit , for example; see also PBS's American Prophet: Prologue and Todd J. Harris, A Comparison of Muhammad and Joseph Smith in the Prophetic Pattern Archived 2011-11-14 at the Wayback Machine , a thesis submitted for a Master of Arts degree at Brigham Young University in 2007, footnotes on pages 1 and 2.

^ PBS's American Prophet: Prologue .

^ Thomas Marsh and Orson Hyde Affidavit , also Todd J. Harris, A Comparison of Muhammad and Joseph Smith in the Prophetic Pattern Archived 2011-11-14 at the Wayback Machine , a thesis submitted for a Master of Arts degree at Brigham Young University in 2007, footnotes on pages 1 and 2.

^ See, for example: Joseph Smith and Muhammad: The Similarities , and Eric Johnson, Joseph Smith and Muhammad , a book published by the "Mormonism Research Ministry" and offered for sale by the anti-Mormon " Utah Lighthouse Ministries ".

^ See, for instance, Todd J. Harris, A Comparison of Muhammad and Joseph Smith in the Prophetic Pattern Archived 2011-11-14 at the Wayback Machine , a thesis submitted for a Master of Arts degree at Brigham Young University in 2007.

^ Haldane, David (2 April 2008). "U.S. Muslims share friendship, similar values with Mormons" – via LA Times.

^ World Muslim Congress: Mormons and Muslims ; Mormon-Muslim Interfaith Ramadan Dinner .

^ "Are the Druze People Arabs or Muslims? Deciphering Who They Are" . Arab America . Arab America. 8 August 2018 . Retrieved 13 April 2020 .

^ James Lewis (2002). The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions . Prometheus Books . Retrieved 13 May 2015 .

^ Hazran, Yusri (2013). The Druze Community and the Lebanese State: Between Confrontation and Reconciliation . Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 9781317931737 . the Druze had been able to live in harmony with the Christian

^ Artzi, Pinḥas (1984). Confrontation and Coexistence . Bar-Ilan University Press. p. 166. ISBN 9789652260499 . .. Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred.

^ CHURCHILL (1862). The Druzes and the Maronites . Montserrat Abbey Library. p. 25. ..the Druzes and Christians lived together in the most perfect harmony and good-will..

^ Hobby (1985). Near East/South Asia Report . Foreign Broadcast Information Service. p. 53. the Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains in the past lived in complete harmony..

^ Fawaz, L.T. (1994). An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860 . University of California Press . ISBN 9780520087828 . Retrieved 2015-04-16 .

^ Vocke, Harald (1978). The Lebanese war: its origins and political dimensions . C. Hurst. p. 10. ISBN 0-903983-92-3 .

^ A. Kayyali, Randa (2006). The Arab Americans . Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 21. ISBN 9780313332197 . some Christians (mostly from the Orthodox faith), as well as Druze, converted to Protestantism...

^ A. Kayyali, Randa (2006). The Arab Americans . Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 21. ISBN 9780313332197 . Many of the Druze have chosen to deemphasize their ethnic identity, and some have officially converted to Christianity.

^ Hobby, Jeneen (2011). Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life . University of Philadelphia Press. p. 232. ISBN 9781414448916 . US Druze settled in small towns and kept a low profile, joining Protestant churches (usually Presbyterian or Methodist) and often Americanizing their names..

^ Granli, Elisabet (2011). "Religious conversion in Syria : Alawite and Druze believers" . University of Oslo .

^ Mishaqa, p. 23.

^ Gábor Ágoston; Bruce Alan Masters (2009-01-01). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire . Infobase Publishing. p. 530. ISBN 978-1-4381-1025-7 . Retrieved 2013-05-25 .

^ The Druze and Assad: Strategic Bedfellows

^ Deeb, Marius (2013). Syria, Iran, and Hezbollah: The Unholy Alliance and Its War on Lebanon . Hoover Press. ISBN 9780817916664 . the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.

^ Jump up to: a b Nisan, Mordechai (2002), Minorities in the Middle East: a history of struggle and self-expression (2nd, illustrated ed.), McFarland, p. 95, ISBN 978-0-7864-1375-1 , retrieved 4 April 2012

^ Quilliam, Neil (1999). Syria and the New World Order . Michigan University press. p. 42. ISBN 9780863722493 .

^ The New Encyclopaedia Britannica . Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1992. p. 237. ISBN 9780852295533 . Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism.

^ Jump up to: a b Hitti, Philip K. (1928). The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings . Library of Alexandria. p. 37. ISBN 9781465546623 .

^ Jump up to: a b Dana, Nissim (2008). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status . Michigan University press. p. 17. ISBN 9781903900369 .

^ A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East . Routledge. 2013. ISBN 9781135355616 . ...Druze believe in seven prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and Muhammad ibn Ismail ad-Darazi..

^ Jump up to: a b Swayd, Samy (2015). Historical Dictionary of the Druzes . Rowman & Littlefield. p. 77. ISBN 978-1442246171 .

^ Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome (2008). The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700 . OUP Oxford. p. 205. ISBN 9780191647666 .

^ Moffett, Marian; Fazio, Michael W.; Wodehouse, Lawrence (1 January 2004). A World History of Architecture . McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780071417518 – via Google Books.

^ Swartley, Keith E. (1 January 2005). Encountering the World of Islam . Biblica. ISBN 9781932805246 – via Google Books.


Christianity and Islam are the two largest religions in the world, with 2.4 billion and 1.9 billion adherents respectively. [1] Along with Judaism, they both are considered Abrahamic religions, are monotheistic , and originated in the Middle East .

Christianity developed out of Second Temple Judaism in the 1st century CE. It is founded on the life, teachings, death , and resurrection of Jesus Christ , and those who follow it are called Christians . [2]

Islam developed in the 7th century CE. Islam, founded on the teachings of Muhammad as an expression of surrender to the will of God . Those who follow it are called Muslims which means "submitter to God". [3] [4]

Muslims view Christians to be People of the Book , and also regard them as kafirs (unbelievers) committing shirk (polytheism) because of the Trinity , and thus, contend that they must be dhimmis (religious taxpayers) under Sharia law . Christians similarly possess a wide range of views about Islam . Christians consider Islam to be a fellow Abrahamic religion where Christians and Muslims both worship the same God . The majority of Christians view Islam as a false religion due to the fact that its adherents reject the Trinity , the divinity of Christ , and the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ .

Islam considers Jesus to be the al-Masih (Arabic for Messiah ) who was sent to guide the Children of Israel ( Banī Isrā'īl in Arabic) with a new revelation: al-Injīl (Arabic for "the Gospel "). [5] [6] [7] Christianity also believes Jesus to be the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew scriptures . However, far more central to the Christian faith is that Jesus is the incarnated God, specifically, one of the hypostases of the Triune God , God the Son . Belief in Jesus is a fundamental part of both Christian and Islamic theology .

Christianity and Islam have different sacred scriptures . The sacred text of Christianity is the Bible while the sacred text of Islam is the Quran . Muslims believe that al-Injīl was distorted or altered to form the Christian New Testament. Christians, on the contrary, do not have a univocal understanding of the Quran, though most believe that it is fabricated or apocryphal work. There are similarities in both texts, such as accounts of the life and works of Jesus and the virgin birth of Jesus through Mary ; yet still, some Biblical and Quranic accounts of these events differ.

The Christian Bible is made up of the Old Testament and the New Testament . The Old Testament was written over a period of two millennia prior to the birth of Christ. The New Testament was written in the decades following the death of Christ. Historically, Christians universally believed that the entire Bible was the divinely inspired Word of God. However, the rise of higher criticism during the Enlightenment has led to a diversity of views concerning the authority and inerrancy of the Bible in different denominations. Christians consider the Quran to be a non-divine set of texts.

The Quran dates from the early 7th century, or decades thereafter. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Jewish and Christian scriptures . It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and differs in others. [8] [9] [10] Muslims believe that Jesus was given the Injil (Greek evangel , or Gospel ) by Allah and that parts of these teachings were lost or distorted ( tahrif ) to produce the Hebrew Bible and the Christian New Testament . The majority of Muslims believe that the Quran has remained unchanged and unedited since the death of Muhammad, though scholars and early Islamic sources reject this traditionalist view . [11]

Muslims and Christians both believe that Jesus was born to Mary , a virgin . [12] They both also believe that Jesus is the Messiah . [13] However, they differ on other key issues regarding Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus was the incarnated Son of God, divine, and sinless. Islam teaches that Jesus was one of the most important prophets of God , but not the Son of God, not divine, and not part of the Trinity . Rather, Muslims believe the creation of Jesus was similar to the creation of Adam ( Adem ).

Christianity and Islam also differ in their fundamental views related to the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus . Christianity teaches that Jesus was condemned to death by the Sanhedrin and the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate , crucified , and after three days, resurrected. However, Islam teaches that Jesus was a human prophet who, like the other prophets, tried to bring the children of Adam to worship the One God, termed Tawhid . Muslims also believe that Jesus was condemned to crucifixion and then miraculously saved from execution , and was raised to the heavens. [14] In Islam, instead of Jesus being crucified, his lookalike was crucified. [15]

Both Christians and Muslims believe in the Second Coming of Jesus. Christianity does not state where will Jesus return, while the Hadith in Islam states that Jesus will return at a white minaret at the east of Damascus (believed to be the Minaret of Isa in the Umayyad Mosque ), and will pray behind Mahdi . [16] Christians believe that Jesus will return to kill the Antichrist and similarly Muslims believe that Jesus will return to kill Dajjal . Christians believe that Jesus would then rule for 1,000 years, while Muslims believe Jesus will rule for forty years, marry, have children and will be buried at the Green Dome . [16]

Muslims believe that the Quran was verbally revealed by God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel ( Jibril ), [17] [18] gradually over a period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609, [19] when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death. [20] [21] [22] Muslims regard the Quran as the most important miracle of Muhammad, a proof of his prophethood, [23] and the culmination of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam and ended wit
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