Muslim Politics
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This article is about the issue of politics in the religion of Islam. For the movement of "Political Islam", see Islamism .
^ W.M. Watt argues that the initial agreement was shortly after the hijra and the document was amended at a later date specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624). [11]
^ R. B. Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact eight different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina with the first treaty being written shortly after Muhammad's arrival.
[12]
[13]
^ Julius Wellhausen argues that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra, and that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad’s residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Wellhausen bases this judgement on three considerations; first Muhammad is very diffident about his own position, he accepts the Pagan tribes within the Umma, and maintains the Jewish clans as clients of the Ansars [14] [15]
^ Moshe Gil, a skeptic of Islamic history, argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. [16]
^ Abu Hamid al-Ghazali quoted in Mortimer, Edward, Faith and Power: The Politics of Islam, Vintage Books, 1982, p.37
^ Feldman, Noah, Fall and Rise of the Islamic State , Princeton University Press, 2008, p.2
^ Jump up to: a b Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad . Oxford University Press. pp. 51–60. ISBN 0192876058 .
^ Jump up to: a b Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad . Oxford University Press. pp. 56–7. ISBN 0192876058 .
^ Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad . Oxford University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0192876058 .
^ R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jāmi'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrīm of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42, Cambridge University Press .
^ See:
Reuven Firestone, Jihād: the origin of holy war in Islam (1999) p. 118;
"Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online
^ Watt, William Montgomery. Muhammad at Medina
^ R. B. Serjeant. "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4.
^ Serjeant (1978), page 4.
^ Watt, William Montgomery. Muhammad at Medina . pp. 227-228
^ R. B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so called 'Constitution of Medina'." in The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World : Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151
^ see same article in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. Annali dell’Islam, Volume I . Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p.393.
^ see Wellhausen, Excursus, p. 158.
^ Julius Wellhausen. Skizzen und Vorabeiten , IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f
^ Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." Israel Oriental Studies 4 (1974): p. 45.
^ Lewis, Bernard, The Middle East : a Brief History of the last 2000 Years, Touchstone, (1995), p.139
^ [1] Archived September 30, 2005, at the Wayback Machine
^ Lewis, The Middle East , (1995), p.143
^ Lewis, The Middle East , (1995), p.141
^ Jump up to: a b Process of Choosing the Leader (Caliph) of the Muslims: The Muslim Khilafa: by Gharm Allah Al-Ghamdy Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine
^ The Early Islamic Conquests (1981)
^ Sohaib N. Sultan, Forming an Islamic Democracy Archived 2004-10-01 at the Wayback Machine
^ Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2004), vol. 1, p. 116-123.
^ Judge Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997). Justice Without Frontiers . Brill Publishers . p. 135. ISBN 90-411-0241-8 .
^ Jump up to: a b Feldman, Noah (March 16, 2008). "Why Shariah?" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2008-10-05 .
^ Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society . 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77]. doi : 10.2307/604423 . JSTOR 604423 .
^ Feldman, Noah, Fall and Rise of the Islamic State , Princeton University Press, 2008, p.6
^ Roy, Olivier, The Failure of Political Islam by Olivier Roy, translated by Carol Volk, Harvard University Press, 1994, p.14-15
^ Kadri, Sadakat (2012). Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ... Macmillan. pp. 120–1. ISBN 9780099523277 .
^ Noah Feldman (March 16, 2008). "Why Shariah?" . New York Times . Retrieved 2008-10-05 .
^ Momen, Moojan, Introduction to Shi'i Islam , Yale University Press, 1985 p.192
^ "Freedom and Justice in the Middle East" . Archived from the original on 2007-12-30 . Retrieved 2008-11-05 .
^ Lambton, Ann K. S. (2002). State and Government in Medieval Islam . Routledge. p. 145. ISBN 9781136605208 . Retrieved 19 September 2015 .
^ Ibn Taymiyya, Le traite de droit public d'ibn Taimiya. Translated by Henri Laoust. Beirut, 1948, p.12
^ Kadri, Sadakat (2012). Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ... macmillan. p. 139. ISBN 9780099523277 .
^ Bosworth, C.E.; Netton, I.R.; Vogel, F.E. (2012). "Siyāsa". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1096 . (subscription required)
^ Yossef Rapoport (2009). "Political Dimension (Siyāsa Sharʿiyya) of Islamic Law" . In Stanley N. Katz (ed.). The Oxford International Encyclopedia of Legal History . Oxford: Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
^ Momen, Moojan, Introduction to Shi'i Islam , Yale University Press, 1985 p.194
^ "Another battle with Islam's 'true believers ' " . The Globe and Mail .
^ "Archived copy" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-02 . Retrieved 2015-11-17 . CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( link )
^ Mohamad Jebara More Mohamad Jebara. "Imam Mohamad Jebara: Fruits of the tree of extremism" . Ottawa Citizen .
^ Jump up to: a b Cuthell Jr., David Cameron (2009). "Atatürk, Kemal (Mustafa Kemal)" . In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire . New York : Facts On File . pp. 56–60. ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1 . LCCN 2008020716 . Retrieved 23 January 2021 .
^ Roy, Olivier, The Failure of Political Islam by Olivier Roy, translated by Carol Volk, Harvard University Press, 1994, p.32
^ Jump up to: a b Feldman, Noah, Fall and Rise of the Islamic State , Princeton University Press, 2008, p.71-76
^ Feldman, Noah, Fall and Rise of the Islamic State , Princeton University Press, 2008, p.79
^ Benhenda, M., Liberal Democracy and Political Islam: the Search for Common Ground , SSRN 1475928
^ Jump up to: a b c Hunt, Michael (2014). The World Transformed, 1945 to the Present . New York City: Oxford. p. 495. ISBN 978-0-19-937102-0 .
^ Esposito, John L.; DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2018). Shariah: What Everyone Needs to Know . Oxford University Press. pp. 142–143.
^ Esposito, John L.; DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2018). Shariah: What Everyone Needs to Know . Oxford University Press. p. 145.
^ "Most Muslims Want Democracy, Personal Freedoms, and Islam in Political Life" . Pew Research Center . July 10, 2012.
^ Magali Rheault; Dalia Mogahed (Oct 3, 2017). "Majorities See Religion and Democracy as Compatible" . Gallup .
^ Muslih, Muhammad; Browers, Michaelle (2009). "Democracy" . In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^ Browers, Michaelle L. (2010). "Retreat from secularism in Arab nationalist and socialist thought". Political Ideology in the Arab World: Accommodation and Transformation . Cambridge Middle East Studies. 31 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . pp. 19–47. doi : 10.1017/CBO9780511626814.003 . ISBN 9780511626814 . LCCN 2009005334 . S2CID 153779474 .
^ Olivier Roy, Failure of Political Islam , (1994) pp.30-31
^ Arjomand, Said A. (1995). "The Search for Fundamentals and Islamic Fundamentalism" . In van Vucht Tijssen, Lieteke; Berting, Jan; Lechner, Frank (eds.). The Search for Fundamentals: The Process of Modernisation and the Quest for Meaning . Dordrecht : Springer Verlag . pp. 27–39. doi : 10.1007/978-94-015-8500-2_2 . ISBN 978-0-7923-3542-9 .
^ Jump up to: a b Ibrahim, Hassan Ahmed (January 2006). Son, Joonmo; Thompson, Eric C. (eds.). "Shaykh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and Shāh Walī Allāh: A Preliminary Comparison of Some Aspects of their Lifes and Careers". Asian Journal of Social Science . Leiden : Brill Publishers . 34 (1): 103–119. doi : 10.1163/156853106776150126 . eISSN 1568-5314 . ISSN 1568-4849 . JSTOR 23654402 .
^ Jump up to: a b Laoust, H. (2012) [1993]. "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb". In Bearman, P. J. ; Bianquis, Th. ; Bosworth, C. E. ; van Donzel, E. J. ; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden : Brill Publishers . doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3033 . ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4 .
^ Jump up to: a b Haykel, Bernard (2013). "Ibn ‛Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (1703-92)" . In Böwering, Gerhard ; Crone, Patricia ; Kadi, Wadad; Mirza, Mahan; Stewart, Devin J. ; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (eds.). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought . Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press . pp. 231–232. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0 . Retrieved 3 November 2020 .
^ Jump up to: a b Esposito, John L. , ed. (2004). "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791)" . The Oxford Dictionary of Islam . New York : Oxford University Press . p. 123. ISBN 0-19-512559-2 . Retrieved 3 November 2020 .
^ Jump up to: a b "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad - Oxford Islamic Studies Online" . www.oxfordislamicstudies.com . Oxford University Press . 2020 . Retrieved 3 November 2020 .
^ Olivier Roy, Failure of Political Islam (1994), p. 31.
^ Olivier Roy, Failure of Political Islam (1994), pp. 35-37.
^ Shia Revival : How conflicts within Islam will shape the future by Vali Nasr, Norton, 2006, p.148-9
^ Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam , Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p.26
Political aspects of Islam are derived from the Quran , hadith literature , and sunnah (the sayings and living habits of the Islamic prophet Muhammad ), history of Islam , and elements of political movements outside Islam. Traditional political concepts in Islam include leadership by elected or selected successors to Muhammad known as Caliphs ( Imamate for Shia ); the importance of following Islamic law or Sharia ; the duty of rulers to seek Shura or consultation from their subjects; and the importance of rebuking unjust rulers. [1]
A significant change in the Muslim world was the defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922). [2] In the 19th and 20th century, common Islamic political themes has been resistance to Western imperialism and enforcement of Sharia law through democratic or militant struggle. Events such as the defeat of Arab armies in the Six-Day War , the collapse of the Soviet Union , the end of the Cold War and the fall of communism as a viable alternative have increased the appeal of Islamic movements such as Islamism , Islamic fundamentalism , and Islamic democracy , especially in the context of popular dissatisfaction with secularist ruling regimes in the Muslim world. [ citation needed ]
The origins of Islam as a political movement are to be found in the life and times of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his successors. In 622 CE, in recognition of his claims to prophethood, Muhammad was invited to rule the city of Medina . At the time the local Arab tribes of Aus and Khazraj dominated the city, and were in constant conflict. Medinans saw in Muhammad an impartial outsider who could resolve the conflict. Muhammad and his followers thus moved to Medina, where Muhammad drafted the Medina Charter . This document made Muhammad the ruler, and recognized him as the prophet of Allah . The laws Muhammad established during his rule, based on the Quran and doing of Muhammad, are considered by Muslims to be Sharia or Islamic law, which Islamic movements seek to establish in the present day. Muhammad gained a widespread following and an army, and his rule expanded first to the city of Mecca and then spread through the Arabian peninsula through a combination of diplomacy and military conquest.
Today many Islamist or Islamic democratic parties exist in almost every democracy with a Muslim majority. Many militant Islamic groups are also working in different parts of world. The controversial term " Islamic fundamentalism " has also been coined by some Non-Muslims to describe the political and religious philosophies of some militant Islamic groups . Both of these terms ( Islamic democracy and Islamic fundamentalism ) lump together a large variety of groups with varying histories, ideologies and contexts.
While the Quran does not dwell on politics it does make mention of the concepts of the oppressed ( mustad'afeen ), emigration ( hijra ), the Muslim community ( Ummah ), and fighting in the way of God ( jihad ), that can have political implications. [3] A number of verses (such as Q.4:98) talk about mustad'afeen which can be translated as "those deemed weak", "underdogs", or "the oppressed", how they are put upon by people such as the pharaoh, how God wishes them to be treated justly, and how they should emigrate from the land where they are oppressed (Q.4:99). Abraham was an "emigrant unto my Lord" (Q.29:25). War against unbelievers ( Kuffar ) is commanded and divine aid promised, although some verse(s) state this may be when unbelievers start the war and treaties may end the war. The Quran also devotes some verses to the proper division of spoils captured in war among the victors. War against internal enemies or " hypocrites " ( munafiqun ) is also commanded. [3] Some commands did not extend past the life of the prophet such as ones to refer quarrels to God and his prophet or not to shout at or raise your voice when talking to the prophet. [4] Limiting its political teaching is the fact that the Quran does not mention "any formal and continuing structure of authority", only orders to obey the Prophet, [4] and that its themes were of limited use when the success of Islam meant governance of "a vast territory populate mainly peasants, and dominate by cities and states" alien to nomadic desert life. [5]
The Constitution of Medina was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad . It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina ), including Muslims , Jews , Christians [6] and Pagans . [7] [8] [9] This constitution formed the basis of the first Islamic state . The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing to an end the bitter intertribal fighting between the clans of the Aws ( Aus ) and Khazraj within Medina. To this effect it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and Pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah . [10]
The precise dating of the Constitution of Medina remains debated but generally scholars agree it was written shortly after the Hijra (622).
[Note 1]
[Note 2]
[Note 3]
[Note 4]
It effectively established the first Islamic state. The Constitution established: the security of the community, religious freedoms, the role of Medina as a haram or sacred place (barring all violence and weapons), the security of women, stable tribal relations within Medina, a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict, parameters for exogenous political alliances, a system for granting protection of individuals, a judicial system for resolving disputes, and also regulated the paying of blood money (the payment between families or tribes for the slaying of an individual in lieu of lex talionis ). [ citation needed ]
After death of Muhammad, his community needed to appoint a new leader, giving rise to the title Caliph , meaning "successor". Thus the subsequent Islamic empires were known as Caliphates . Alongside the growth of the Umayyad empire, the major political development within Islam in this period was the sectarian split between Sunni and Shi'ite Muslims; this had its roots in a dispute over the succession of the Caliphate. Sunni Muslims believed the caliphate was elective, and any Muslim might serve as one. Shi'ites, on the other hand, believed the caliphate should be hereditary in the line of the Prophet, and thus all the caliphs, with the exception of Ali , were usurpers. [17] However, the Sunni sect emerged as triumphant in most of the Muslim world, and thus most modern Islamic political movements (with the exception of Iran ) are founded in Sunni thought.
Muhammad's closest companions, the four " rightly guided " Caliphs who succeeded him, continued to expand the state to encompass Jerusalem , Ctesiphon , and Damascus , and sending armies as far as the Sindh . [18] The Islamic empire stretched from Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) to the Punjab under the reign of the Umayyad dynasty .
An important Islamic concept concerning the structure of ruling is shura , or consultation with people regarding their affairs, which is the duty of rulers mentioned in two verses in the Quran , 3:153, and 42:36. [19]
One type of ruler not part of the Islamic ideal was the king , which was disparaged in Quran 's mentions of the Pharaoh , "the prototype of the unjust and tyrannical ruler" (18:70, 79) and elsewhere. (28:34) [20]
Al-Mawardi , a Muslim jurist of the Shafii school, has written that the caliph should be Qurayshi . Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani , an Ashari Islamic scholar and Maliki lawyer, wrote that the leader of the Muslims simply should be from the majority. Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man , the founder of the Sunni Hanafi school of fiqh, also wrote that the leader must come from the majority. [21]
Western scholar of Islam, Fred Donner , [22] argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was
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Muslim Politics
