Muslim History

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This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For a history of the Islamic faith, see Islamic schools and branches .
Further information: Anarchy at Samarra
   Sunni countries   Shia countries Ibadi countries

^ The name Mansuriyya means "the victorious", after its founder Ismāʿīl Abu Tahir Ismail Billah, called al-Mansur , "the victor." [147]




^ Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society . Psychology Press. p. 5 . ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6 .

^ Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.) . Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4 .

^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5. [ full citation needed ]

^ Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians . Princeton University Press. p. 9 . ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5 .

^ Jump up to: a b "Key themes in these early recitations include the idea of the moral responsibility of man who was created by God and the idea of the judgment to take place on the day of resurrection. [...] Another major theme of Muhammad's early preaching, [... is that] there is a power greater than man's, and that the wise will acknowledge this power and cease their greed and suppression of the poor." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed. , "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 363.

^ Jump up to: a b "At first Muhammad met with no serious opposition [...] He was only gradually led to attack on principle the gods of Mecca. [...] Meccan merchants then discovered that a religious revolution might be dangerous to their fairs and their trade." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed. , "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 364.

^ Nanda, J. N (2005). Bengal: the unique state . Concept Publishing Company. p. 10. 2005. ISBN 978-81-8069-149-2 . Bengal [...] was rich in the production and export of grain, salt, fruit, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments besides the output of its handlooms in silk and cotton. Europe referred to Bengal as the richest country to trade with.

^ Jump up to: a b c Lex Heerma van Voss; Els Hiemstra-Kuperus; Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk (2010). "The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India" . The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000 . Ashgate Publishing. p. 255. ISBN 9780754664284 .

^ Imperato, Pascal James; Imperato, Gavin H. (25 April 2008). Historical Dictionary of Mali . Scarecrow Press. p. 201. ISBN 9780810864023 .

^ Julie Taylor, Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera , (Rowman & Littlefield Inc., 2003), 18.

^ Sampler & Eigner (2008). Sand to Silicon: Going Global . UAE: Motivate. p. 15. ISBN 9781860632549 .

^ "International – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)" . eia.gov .

^ Donner 2010 , p. 628.

^ Robinson 2010 , p. 6.

^ Robinson 2010 , p. 2.

^ Hughes 2013 , p. 56.

^ Jump up to: a b Donner 2010 , p. 633.

^ See also Hughes 2013 , pp. 6 & 7, who links the practice of source and tradition (or form ) criticism as one approach.

^ Donner 2010 , pp. 629, 633.

^ Donner 2010 , p. 630.

^ Donner 2010 , p. 631.

^ Donner 2010 , p. 632.

^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson 2010 , p. 9.

^ Robinson 2010 , pp. 4, 5.

^ Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . OUP USA. pp. 297–99. ISBN 9780195336931 .

^ Jump up to: a b c d Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . OUP USA. p. 302. ISBN 9780195336931 .

^ Jump up to: a b c Rogerson 2010 .

^ "The very first question a biographer has to ask, namely when the person was born, cannot be answered precisely for Muhammad. [...] Muhammad's biographers usually make him 40 or sometimes 43 years old at the time of his call to be a prophet, which [...] would put the year of his birth at about 570 A.D." F. Buhl & A.T. Welch, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed. , "Muhammad", vol. 7, p. 361.

^ Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . OUP USA. p. 287. ISBN 9780195336931 .

^ Jump up to: a b Christian Julien Robin (2012). Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity . OUP USA. p. 301. ISBN 9780195336931 .

^ Irving M. Zeitlin (19 March 2007). The Historical Muhammad . Polity. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-7456-3999-4 .

^ Hazleton 2013 , p. "a sense of kinship".

^ Bleeker 1968 , p. 32-34.

^ Sally Mallam, The Community of Believers

^ Robinson 2010 , p. 187.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Albert Hourani (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples . Harvard University Press. pp. 15–19. ISBN 9780674010178 .

^ W. Montgomery Watt (1956). Muhammad at Medina . Oxford at the Clarendon Press. pp. 1 –17, 192–221.

^ Jump up to: a b c Albert Hourani (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples . Harvard University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 9780674010178 .

^ "The immediate outcome of the Muslim victories was turmoil. Medina's victories led allied tribes to attack the non-aligned to compensate for their own losses. The pressure drove tribes [...] across the imperial frontiers. The Bakr tribe, which had defeated a Persian detachment in 606, joined forces with the Muslims and led them on a raid in southern Iraq [...] A similar spilling over of tribal raiding occurred on the Syrian frontiers. Abu Bakr encouraged these movements [...] What began as inter-tribal skirmishing to consolidate a political confederation in Arabia ended as a full-scale war against the two empires." Lapidus (2002 , p. 32)

^ "In dealing with captured leaders Abu Bakr showed great clemency, and many became active supporters of the cause of Islam." W. Montgomery Watt, Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed. , "Abu Bakr", vol. 1, p. 110. "Umar's subsequent decision (reversing the exclusionary policy of Abu Bakr) to allow those tribes which had rebelled during the course of the Ridda wars and been subdued to participate in the expanding incursions into and attacks on the Fertile Crescent [...] incorporated the defeated Arabs into the polity as Muslims." Berkey (2003 , p. 71)

^ [N]on-Muslim sources allow us to perceive an additional advantage, namely, that Arabs had been serving in the armies of Byzantium and Persia long before Islam; they had acquired valuable training in the weaponry and military tactics of the empires and had become to some degree acculturated to their ways. In fact, these sources hint that we should view many in Muhammad’s west Arabian coalition, its settled members as well as its nomads, not so much as outsiders seeking to despoil the empires but as insiders trying to grab a share of the wealth of their imperial masters. Hoyland (2014 , p. 227)

^ Abdul Basit Ahmad (2001). Umar bin Al Khattab - The Second Caliph of Islam . Darussalam. p. 43. ISBN 978-9960-861-08-1 .

^ Khalid Muhammad Khalid; Muhammad Khali Khalid (2005). Men Around the Messenger . The Other Press. pp. 20–. ISBN 978-983-9154-73-3 .

^ Maulana Muhammad Ali (8 August 2011). The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad . eBookIt.com. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-1-934271-22-3 .

^ Muhammad Al-Buraey (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective . KPI. pp. 254–. ISBN 978-0-7103-0333-2 .

^ The challenge of Islamic renaissance by Syed Abdul Quddus

^ Muhammad Al-Buraey (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective . KPI. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0-7103-0059-1 .

^ Ahmed Akgündüz; Said Öztürk (1 January 2011). Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths . IUR Press. pp. 539–. ISBN 978-90-90-26108-9 .

^ Jump up to: a b Sami Ayad Hanna; George H. Gardner (1969). Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakīyah Al-ʻArabīyah]: A Documentary Survey . Brill Archive. pp. 271–. GGKEY:EDBBNXAKPQ2.

^ Esposito (2000 , p. 38)

^ Hofmann (2007), p. 86

^ Islam: An Illustrated History by Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay p. 40

^ R. B. Serjeant (1978). "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina ' ". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies . 41 : 1–42. doi : 10.1017/S0041977X00057761 .

^ R. B. Serjeant (1964). "The Constitution of Medina". Islamic Quarterly . 8 : 4.

^ Constitution of Medina . scribd.com

^ Wilferd Madelung (15 October 1998). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate . Cambridge University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3 .

^ Rahman (1999 , p. 40)

^ Archibald Ross Lewis (1985). European Naval and Maritime History, 300–1500 . Indiana University Press. pp. 24–. ISBN 978-0-253-32082-7 .

^ Leonard Michael Kroll (2005). History of the Jihad: Islam Versus Civilization . AuthorHouse. pp. 123–. ISBN 978-1-4634-5730-3 .

^ Timothy E. Gregory (26 August 2011). A History of Byzantium . John Wiley & Sons. pp. 183–. ISBN 978-1-4443-5997-8 .

^ Mark Weston (28 July 2008). Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present . John Wiley & Sons. pp. 61–. ISBN 978-0-470-18257-4 .

^ Khalid Muhammad Khalid; Muhammad Khali Khalid (February 2005). Men Around the Messenger . The Other Press. pp. 117–. ISBN 978-983-9154-73-3 .

^ P. M. Holt; Peter Malcolm Holt; Ann K. S. Lambton; Bernard Lewis (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam . Cambridge University Press. pp. 605–. ISBN 978-0-521-29138-5 .

^ Maulana Muhammad Ali (9 August 2011). The Early Caliphate . eBookIt.com. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-1-934271-25-4 .

^ Rahman (1999 , p. 37)

^ Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin , New Series 50 (1): 3.

^ Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War by Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi p. 32

^ Wilferd Madelung (1998). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate . Cambridge University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3 .

^ Bukhari, Sahih. "Sahih Bukhari : Book of "Peacemaking " " .

^ Holt (1977a , pp. 67–72) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFHolt1977a ( help )

^ Roberts, J: History of the World . Penguin, 1994.

^ Dermenghem, E. (1958). Muhammad and the Islamic tradition . New York: Harper Brothers. p. 183.

^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate by Wilferd Madelung. p. 340.

^ Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: A-I , Volume 1 edited by R. Khanam. p. 543

^ Islam and Politics John L. Esposito 1998 p. 16

^ Islamic Imperial Law: Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project by Benjamin Jokisch - 2007 p. 404

^ The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East Hugh N. Kennedy - 2006 p. 197

^ A Chronology of Islamic History by H. U. Rahman pp. 106, 129

^ Voyages in World History by Josef W. Meri p. 248

^ Lapidus (2002 , p. 56); Lewis (1993 , pp. 71–83)

^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads . State University of New York Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-7914-1827-7 .

^ answering-ansar.org. ch 8. Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine

^ answering-ansar.org. ch 7. Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine

^ Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu , Page 484, by Syed Mohammed Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963. p. 484.

^ History of the Arab by Philip K Hitti

^ History of Islam by prof.Masudul Hasan

^ The Empire of the Arabs by sir John Glubb

^ In the Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula), North Africa and in the east populations revolted. In A.H. 102 (720–721) in Ifriqiyah, the harsh governor Yazid ibn Muslim was overthrown and Muhammad ibn Yazid, the former governor, restored to power. The caliph accepted this and confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah.

^ *Eggenberger, David (1985). An Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 BC. to the Present . Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24913-1 p. 3.

^ von Ess, "Kadar", Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd Ed.

^ Theophilus. Quoted Robert Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It (Darwin Press, 1998), 660

^ Jump up to: a b J. Jomier. Islam: Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. accessdate=2007-05-02

^ Lewis 1993 , p. 84

^ Holt 1977a , p. 105 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolt1977a ( help )

^ Holt 1977b , pp. 661–63 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHolt1977b ( help )

^ Jump up to: a b c "Abbasid Dynasty", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)

^ "Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Applied History Research Group. "The Islamic World to 1600" . University of Calagary. Archived from the original on 10 April 2007 . Retrieved 18 April 2007 .

^ "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online

^ Lapidus 2002 , p. 54

^ Nasr 2003 , p. 121

^ Khaddūrī 2002 , pp. 21–22

^ Abdel Wahab El Messeri. Episode 21: Ibn Rushd , Everything you wanted to know about Islam but was afraid to Ask , Philosophia Islamica .

^ Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt , Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ) .

^ for more, see As-Saffah's_Caliphate

^ An universal history: from the earliest accounts to the present time, Volume 2 By George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald Bower, George Shelvocke, John Campbell, John Swinton. p. 319

^ Chamber's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, Volume 5. W. & R. Chambers, 1890. p. 567 .

^ Johannes P. Schadé (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Religions.

^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History volume xxxi, "The War Between Brothers," transl. Michael Fishbein, SUNY, Albany, 1992

^ Nasr 2003 , pp. 121–22

^ Lapidus 1988 , p. 129 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLapidus1988 ( help )

^ Thomas Spencer Baynes (1878). The Encyclopædia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature . A. and C. Black. pp. 578–.

^ Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.

^ The Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and intellectual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and loyalty oaths. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the state of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person interrogated stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.

^ Had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest".

^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History v. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987; v. 33 "Storm and Stress along the Northern frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate," transl. C.E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1991

^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History v. 34 "Incipient Decline," transl. Joel L. Kramer, SUNY, Albany, 1989. ISBN 0-88706-875-8 , ISBN 978-0-88706-875-1

^ Its minarets were spiraling cones 55 metres (180 ft) high with a spiral ramp, and it had 17 aisles with walls paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass.

^ A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives.

^ Examples of the former include the loss of Mosul in 990, and the loss of Ṭabaristān and Gurgān in 997. An example of the latter is the Kakūyid dynasty of Isfahān , whose fortunes rose with the decline of the Būyids of northern Iran.

^ Bowen, Harold (1928). The Life and Times of ʿAlí Ibn ʿÍsà: The Good Vizier . Cambridge University Press. p. 385.

^ R. N. Frye (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume Four: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. ISBN 0-521-20093-8

^ Hanne, Eric, J. (2007). Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate . Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780838641132 .

^ Jump up to: a b c Muir, Wiliam (2000). The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall . Routledge. ISBN 9780415209014 .

^ Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the Crusades, (Oxford University Press, 2002), 213.

^ ʻIzz al-Dīn Ibn al-Athīr, Donald Sidney Richards, The chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil fī'l-ta'rīkh: The years 491–541/1097–1146 : the coming of the Franks and the Muslim response .

^ Martin Sicker (2000). The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna . Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-96892-2 .

^ Jean Richard, The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem: Volume 1. 1979. p. 36.

^ It is supposed by an emissary of the Hashshashins , who had no love for the Caliph. Modern historians have suspected that Mas'ud instigated the murder although the two most important historians of the period Ibn al-Athir and Ibn al-Jawzi did not speculate on this matter.

^ Grigor of Akanc-The history of the nation of archers, (tr. R.P.Blake) 303

^ Kalistriat Salia-History of the Georguan Nation, p. 210

^ Thomas T. Allsen (2004) Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia , Cambridge University Press, ISBN 052160270X , p. 84

^ Bernard Lewis (1991). The Political Language of Islam . University of Chicago Press.

^
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