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Muslim | Svensk Porr
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the religion. For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation) .
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For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Islamic history .
Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah
^ There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is / z / or / s / , and whether the a is pronounced / ɑː / , / æ / or (when the stress is on the first syllable) / ə / ( Merriam Webster ). The most common are / ɪ z ˈ l ɑː m , ɪ s ˈ l ɑː m , ˈ ɪ z l ə m , ˈ ɪ s l ə m / ( Oxford English Dictionary ) and / ˈ ɪ z l ɑː m , ˈ ɪ s l ɑː m / ( American Heritage Dictionary ).
^ Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date—specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624). [151] Serjeant argues that the constitution is, in fact, eight different treaties that can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. [152] See also Caetani (1905) who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. [153] Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. [154] Even Moshe Gil, a sceptic of Islamic history, argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. [155]
^ "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view. [193]
^ "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the sixtheenth century. [231] (p20–22)
^ A figure of 10-20 million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also: Ahmadiyya by country .
^ Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason. [406]
^ Browne, Edward G. (1889). Bábism .
^ Hunter, Shireen (2010). The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies . University of Michigan Press. p. 33. ISBN 9780253345493 . Druze - An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.
^ Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne (2014). The Oxford Handbook of American Islam . Oxford University Press. p. 142. ISBN 9780199862634 . While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is consider distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze do not identify as Muslims...
^ "Islam | Religion, Beliefs, Practices, & Facts | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . Retrieved 9 May 2022 .
^ "Islam" . HISTORY . Retrieved 9 May 2022 .
^ "Definition of Islam | Dictionary.com" . www.dictionary.com . Retrieved 9 May 2022 .
^ " Muslim ." Lexico . UK: Oxford University Press . 2020.
^ Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World , edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5 . (See also: quick reference .) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."
^ Jump up to: a b Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World , edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5 . (See also: quick reference .) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'"
^ "Muslim Population By Country 2021" . World Population Review . Retrieved 22 July 2021 .
^ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050" . Pew Research Center . 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020 . Retrieved 5 May 2020 .
^ Campo (2009) , p. 34, "Allah".
^ Özdemir, İbrahim . 2014. "Environment." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam , edited by I. Kalin . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8 . "When Meccan pagans demanded proofs, signs, or miracles for the existence of God, the Qurʾān's response was to direct their gaze at nature's complexity, regularity, and order. The early verses of the Qurʾān, therefore, reveal an invitation to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth, and everything that can be seen in the environment.... The Qurʾān thus makes it clear that everything in Creation is a miraculous sign of God (āyah), inviting human beings to contemplate the Creator."
^ Goldman, Elizabeth (1995). Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-508240-1 .
^ Reeves, J. C. (2004). Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality . Leiden : Brill . p. 177. ISBN 90-04-12726-7 .
^ "Global Connections . Religion | PBS" . www.pbs.org . Retrieved 9 May 2022 .
^ Bennett (2010) , p. 101.
^ Esposito, John L. (ed.). "Eschatology" . The Oxford Dictionary of Islam – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
^ Esposito (2002b) , pp. 17, 111–112, 118.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Coulson, Noel James. "Sharīʿah" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 17 September 2021 . (See also: " sharia " via Lexico .)
^ Trofimov, Yaroslav . 2008. The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine . Knopf . New York. ISBN 978-0-307-47290-8 . p. 79.
^ Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society . Psychology Press . p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6 .
^ Saliba, George . 1994. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam . New York: New York University Press . ISBN 0-8147-8023-7 . pp. 245, 250, 256–57.
^ King, David A. (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks". Isis . 74 (4): 531–55. doi : 10.1086/353360 . S2CID 144315162 .
^ Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. " Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century ." Pp. 351–99 in Islam and the Challenge of Modernity , edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization . Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
^ Arnold, Thomas Walker . The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith .
^ Denny, Frederick. 2010. Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide . Oxford: Oxford University Press . p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
^ "Field Listing :: Religions" . The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . Archived from the original on 6 July 2010 . Retrieved 25 October 2010 . Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.
^ "Sunni" . Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs . Archived from the original on 14 June 2020 . Retrieved 24 May 2020 . Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.
^ Jump up to: a b Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009) , p. 1. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims." sfnp error: no target: CITEREFPew_Forum_for_Religion_&_Public_Life2009 ( help )
^ "Muslim Majority Countries 2021" . worldpopulationreview.com . Retrieved 25 July 2021 .
^ The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life . December 2012. " The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010 ." DC: Pew Research Center. Article .
^ Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi (2004). "Sunni Islam". In Philip Mattar (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference.
^ Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. " 10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050 " (projections table). Pew Research Center .
^ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today . Routledge . p. 193 . ISBN 978-0-415-44851-2 .
^ Jump up to: a b The Future of the Global Muslim Population (Report). Pew Research Center . 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011 . Retrieved 27 December 2017 .
^ "Islam in Russia" . Al Jazeera . Anadolu News Agency . 7 March 2018 . Retrieved 15 June 2021 .
^ "Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population" , The National , 21 April 2018 , retrieved 13 January 2019
^ The Changing Global Religious Landscape (Report). Pew Research Center. 5 April 2017.
^ " Siin ." Lane's Lexicon 4. – via StudyQuran .
^ Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). Islam: The Religion and The People . Wharton School Publishing. p. 8 . ISBN 978-0-13-223085-8 .
^ Jump up to: a b c Gardet & Jomier (2012) .
^ Jump up to: a b c "What Does "Islam" Mean?" . Classical Arabic . 20 June 2020 . Retrieved 20 June 2020 .
^ Esposito (2000) , pp. 76–77 .
^ Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission . Fordham University Press . p. 84 . ISBN 978-0-8232-2584-2 .
^ Wilson, Kenneth G. The Columbia Guide to Standard American English . ISBN 0-231-06989-8 . p. 291: "Muhammadan and Mohammedan are based on the name of the prophet Mohammed, and both are considered offensive."
^ Esposito (2002b) , pp. 74–76
^ Esposito (2004) , p. 22
^ Griffith & Savage (2006) , p. 248
^ "Tawhid" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 17 September 2021 .
^ "Surah Al-Ma'idah – 5:73" . quran.com . Retrieved 26 March 2021 .
^ Bentley, David (1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book . William Carey Library . ISBN 978-0-87808-299-5 .
^ Ali, Kecia; Leaman, Oliver (2008). Islam : the key concepts . London: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-39638-7 . OCLC 123136939 .
^ Jump up to: a b c d Schimmel, Annemarie. "Islam" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 17 September 2021 .
^ Leeming, David. 2005. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-195-15669-0 . p. 209.
^ "God" . Islam: Empire of Faith . PBS . Retrieved 18 December 2010 .
^ Fahlbusch et al (2001) , "Islam and Christianity": Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh .
^ L. Gardet. "Allah". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.) .
^ Burge (2015) , p. 23.
^ Jump up to: a b Burge (2015) , p. 79.
^ " Nūr ." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions . – via Encyclopedia.com .
^ Hartner, W.; Tj Boer. "Nūr". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012) . doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874
^ Elias, Jamal J. "Light". In McAuliffe (2003) . doi : 10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261
^ Campo, Juan E. " Nar ". In Martin (2004) . . – via Encyclopedia.com .
^ Fahd, T. "Nār". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012) . doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846
^ Toelle, Heidi. "Fire". In McAuliffe (2002) . doi : 10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156
^ McAuliffe (2003) , p. 45
^ Burge (2015) , pp. 97–99.
^ Esposito (2002b) , pp. 26–28
^ Webb, Gisela. "Angel". In McAuliffe (n.d.) .
^ MacDonald, D. B.; Madelung, W. "Malāʾika". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012) . doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642
^ Çakmak (2017) , p. 140.
^ Burge (2015) , p. 22.
^ Accad (2003) : According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
^ Esposito (1998) , pp. 6, 12
^ Jump up to: a b Esposito (2002b) , pp. 4–5
^ Jump up to: a b Peters (2003) , p. 9
^ Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.) .
^ Hava Lazarus-Yafeh . "Tahrif". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.) .
^ Jump up to: a b Ringgren, Helmer. "Qurʾān" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 17 September 2021 .
"The word Quran was invented and first used in the Qurʼan itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation."
^ Teece (2003) , pp. 12–13
^ Turner (2006) , p. 42
^ Esposito (2004) , pp. 17–18, 21.
^ Al Faruqi; Lois Ibsen (1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". Asian Music (Autumn – Winter 1987): 3–4.
^ "Tafsīr" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 17 September 2021 .
^ Esposito (2004) , pp. 79–81.
^ Jones, Alan (1994). The Koran . London. p. 1. ISBN 1842126091 . Its outstanding literary merit should also be noted: it is by far, the finest work of Arabic prose in existence.
^ Arberry, Arthur (1956). The Koran Interpreted . London. p. 191. ISBN 0684825074 . It may be affirmed that within the literature of the Arabs, wide and fecund as it is both in poetry and in elevated prose, there is nothing to compare with it.
^ Kadi, Wadad, and Mustansir Mir. "Literature and the Quran." In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an 3. pp. 213, 216.
^ Esposito, J. L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press, USA. p. 225
^ Martin (2004) , p. 666
^ J. Robson. "Hadith". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.) .
^ D.W. Brown. "Sunna". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.) .
^ al-Rahman, Aisha Abd , ed. 1990. Muqaddimah Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ . Cairo: Dar al-Ma'arif, 1990. pp. 160–69
^ Meri, Josef W. (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia . USA: Routledge . ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0 .
^ Awliya'i, Mustafa. " The Four Books ." In Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith 1, translated by A. Q. Qara'i. – via Al-Islam.org . Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ Rizvi, Sayyid Sa'eed Akhtar . " The Hadith §The Four Books (Al-Kutubu’l-Arb’ah) ." Ch 4 in The Qur’an and Hadith . Tanzania: Bilal Muslim Mission . – via Al-Islam.org . Retrieved 24 May 2020.
^ Glassé (2003) , pp. 382–383, "Resurrection"
^ Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012) , "Avicenna". doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_DUM_0467 : "Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as 'Avicenna'."
^ Gardet, L. "Qiyama". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.) .
^ Masri, Basheer Ahmad. Animals in Islam. p. 27.
^ Esposito (2011) , p. 130.
^ Smith (2006) , p. 89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World , p. 565
^ Lagasse et al. (2000) , "Heaven"
^ Asma Afsaruddin. "Garden". In McAuliffe (n.d.) .
^ "Paradise". Encyclopædia Britannica Online .
^ "Andras Rajki's A. E. D. (Arabic Etymological Dictionary)" . 2002. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011 . Retrieved 13 November 2020 .
^ Cohen-Mor (2001) , p. 4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen": Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..."
^ Karamustafa, Ahmet T. "Fate". In McAuliffe (n.d.) . : The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
^ Gardet, L. "al-Ḳaḍāʾ Wa ’l-Ḳadar". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012) . doi : 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0407
^ "Muslim beliefs – Al-Qadr" . Bitesize – GCSE – Edexcel . BBC . Retrieved 13 November 2020 .
^ Siddiqui, Abdur Rashid; Islamic Foundation Staff (Great Britain) (2015). Qur'anic Keywords: a Reference Guide . New York: Kube Publishing. ISBN 978-0-86037-676-7 . OCLC 947732907 .
^ Toropov, Brandon; Buckles, Luke (2004). Complete Idiot's Guide to World Religions . Alpha. ISBN 978-1-59257-222-9 .
^ "Pillars of Islam | Islamic Beliefs & Practices | Britannica" . www.britannica.com .
^ Nasr (2003) , pp. 3, 39, 85, 270–272.
^ Mohammad, N. 1985. "The doctrine of jihad: An introduction." Journal of Law and Religion 3(2):381–97.
^ Kasim, Husain. "Islam". In Salamone (2004) , pp. 195–197.
^ Farah (1994) , p. 135.
^ Galonnier, Juliette. "Moving In or Moving Toward? Reconceptualizing Conversion to Islam as a Liminal Process1". Moving In and Out of Islam, edited by Karin van Nieuwkerk, New York, USA: University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 44-66. https://doi.org/10.7560/317471-003
^ Esposito (2002b) , pp. 18, 19
^ Hedayetullah (2006) , pp. 53–55
^ Kobeisy (2004) , pp. 22–34
^ Momen (1987) , p. 178
^ Mattson, Ingrid (2006). "Women, Islam, and Mosques" . In R. S. Keller and R. R. Ruether (eds.). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America . Volume 2, Part VII. Islam. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press . pp. 615–629. ISBN 978-0-253-34687-2 .
^ Pedersen, J., R. Hillenbrand, J. Burton-Page , et al. 2010. “ Masd̲j̲id .” Encyclopedia of Islam . Leiden: Brill . Retrieved 25 May 2020.
^ "Mosque" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 17 September 2021 .
^ Ahmed, Medani, and Sebastian Gianci. "Zakat." p. 479 in Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy .
^ Ariff, Mohamed (1991). The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia . Institute of Southeast Asian Studies . pp. 55–. ISBN 978-981-3016-07-1 .
^ "A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world" . The New Humanitarian . 1 June 2012 . Retrieved 24 September 2013 .
^ Said, Abdul Aziz; et al. (2006). Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static . Taylor & Francis . p. 145. ISBN 978-0-415-77011-8 .
^ Stefon (2010) , p. 72 .
^ Hudson, A. (2003). Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.). London: Cavendish Publishing. p. 32. ISBN 1-85941-729-9 .
^ Peters, F.E. (2009). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians . p. 20. ISBN 978-1-4008-2548-6 . Retrieved 7 October 2014 .
^ Goldschmidt & Davidson (2005) , p. 48
^ Farah (1994) , pp. 145–147
^ "Hajj". Encyclopædia Britannica Online .
^ Cornell, Vincent J. (2007). Voices of Islam: Voices of tradition . Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-275-98733-6 . Retrieved 26 August 2012 .
^ Glassé, Cyril; Smith, Huston (1 February 2003). The New Encyc
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