Mummification Latex

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Перевести · 16.07.2014 · In the blazing heat of Egypt latex was the last thing anyone wanted to wear and it was her obsession with the stuff that brought down her rule in the end. As the …
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https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0103608
Перевести · 13.08.2014 · Evidence for Prehistoric Origins of Egyptian Mummification in Late Neolithic Burials Traditional theories on ancient Egyptian mummification …
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/in-excess/201705/sexual-mummification
Перевести · 11.05.2017 · A non-rope Japanese mummification is done with wet sheets. Wrap your sub in wet sheets and pull them tight. As the sheets dry, they will shrink and the mummification …
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What is the process of mummification?
What is the process of mummification?
Mummification is the process of preserving the body after death by deliberately drying or embalming flesh. This typically involved removing moisture from a deceased body and using chemicals or natural preservatives, such as resin, to desiccate the flesh and organs.
www.livescience.com/mummification.html
How is Japanese mummification done with wet sheets?
How is Japanese mummification done with wet sheets?
A non-rope Japanese mummification is done with wet sheets. Wrap your sub in wet sheets and pull them tight. As the sheets dry, they will shrink and the mummification will become even tighter.
www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/in-exc…
What kind of resin do you use to mummify a mummy?
What kind of resin do you use to mummify a mummy?
This process can use up to a huge 375m² of linen. Whoever’s mummifying you shouldn’t forget to use resin on alternate layers for extra protection, and to occasionally put amulets in there too, to help with the journey into the afterlife. Resin in Arabic is ‘mummia’, and this is actually where the word ‘mummy’ comes from.
www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zrcg2sg
Is mummification part of Egyptian mythology?
Is mummification part of Egyptian mythology?
The process, which had once been elaborate and sophisticated, became troublesome and of poor quality. Greek mythology took the place of Egyptian mythology, and mummification, which was an important part of Egyptian religion, eventually lost relevance. What is Mummification?
www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-science …
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zrcg2sg
Перевести · 26.07.2020 · Close your eyes, and imagine for a second you’re a pharaoh (or king) in ancient Egypt. Do you want to be re-joined with your body in the afterlife …
https://www.livescience.com/mummification.html
Перевести · 15.07.2020 · Mummification is the process of preserving the body after death by deliberately drying or embalming flesh. This …
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https://www.mylearning.org/stories/a-step-by-step-guide-to-egyptian-mummification/220
Перевести · This is the step-by-step process of how mummification took place: Insert a hook through a hole near the nose and pull out part of the brain; Make a cut on the left side …
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Traditional theories on ancient Egyptian mummification postulate that in the prehistoric period (i.e. the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, 5th and 4th millennia B.C.) bodies were naturally desiccated through the action of the hot, dry desert sand. Although molding of the body with resin-impregnated linen is believed to be an early Pharaonic forerunner to more complex processes, scientific evidence for the early use of resins in artificial mummification has until now been limited to isolated occurrences during the late Old Kingdom (c. 2200 B.C.), their use becoming more apparent during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1600 BC). We examined linen wrappings from bodies in securely provenanced tombs (pit graves) in the earliest recorded ancient Egyptian cemeteries at Mostagedda in the Badari region (Upper Egypt). Our investigations of these prehistoric funerary wrappings using a combination of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and thermal desorption/pyrolysis (TD/Py)-GC-MS have identified a pine resin, an aromatic plant extract, a plant gum/sugar, a natural petroleum source, and a plant oil/animal fat in directly AMS-dated funerary wrappings. Predating the earliest scientific evidence by more than a millennium, these embalming agents constitute complex, processed recipes of the same natural products, in similar proportions, as those utilized at the zenith of Pharaonic mummification some 3,000 years later. The antibacterial properties of some of these ingredients and the localized soft-tissue preservation that they would have afforded lead us to conclude that these represent the very beginnings of experimentation that would evolve into the famous mummification practice of the Pharaonic period.
Citation: Jones J, Higham TFG, Oldfield R, O'Connor TP, Buckley SA (2014) Evidence for Prehistoric Origins of Egyptian Mummification in Late Neolithic Burials. PLoS ONE 9(8): e103608. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103608
Editor: Luca Bondioli, Museo Nazionale Preistorico Etnografico ‘L. Pigorini’, Italy
Received: April 5, 2014; Accepted: July 1, 2014; Published: August 13, 2014
Copyright: © 2014 Jones et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction. Data are available from the institutions involved in the study whose authors may be contacted at sb55@york.ac.uk, University of York and jana.jones@mq.edu.au, Macquarie University.
Funding: Support for this research has been provided by: Professor Joann Fletcher and Pharos Research (SAB); The Wellcome Trust (Grant Number WT074315) (http://www.wellcome.ac.uk) (SAB); The National Endowment for Science Technology and the Arts (NESTA) (http://www.nesta.org.uk) (SAB); and Macquarie University (JJ). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
No chemical investigations or analyses of the organic compounds present in funerary wrappings of the prehistoric period (c. 4500 – 3350 BC) have ever been reported in the literature, nor has their presence as early as the fifth millennium BC been previously proposed by others [1]. It has been assumed that preservation of soft tissues was predominantly through natural processes afforded by the favorable burial environment, rather than by the complex and deliberate physico-chemical intervention that characterizes the mummification of later times [2], [3]. The Old Kingdom is generally regarded as the start of true Egyptian mummification c. 2500 BC [4], with the utilization of preservative resins becoming more evident by the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000 – 1600 BC) [5]. Where resins with preservative qualities have been identified in the embalming agents, the mummies have generally been of a relatively late date [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], although a conifer resin has been identified in one mummy from the late Old Kingdom (c. 2200 BC) [12].
Modern investigative chemical techniques applied to securely provenanced and dated mummies and embalming material [6], [8], [12], [13], [14], [15] have provided insights into the organic materials used in mummification during Egypt's Pharaonic period (c. 2900 – 332 BC) [16]. Yet there have been no such studies prior to this period.
Here we present the first chemical investigation of directly AMS-dated linen funerary wrappings, skin and ‘reed’ matting material from bodies in securely provenanced Badarian (Late Neolithic) and Predynastic (Chalcolithic) period tombs (pit graves) at Mostagedda in the Badari region, Upper Egypt (c. 4500 BC – 3350 BC [16]). Specifically, analysis was undertaken on textile wrappings impregnated with ‘resin’ (sensu lato), which is regarded as the main component of early Pharaonic attempts at corporeal preservation before the later introduction (c. 2500 BC) of a desiccant (natron) and evisceration [17].
Samples of textiles from cemeteries at Badari and Mostagedda were sent to the Chadwick (now Bolton) Museum in Bolton, UK by the excavators in the early 20th century [18], [19]. The site of Badari gave its name to the earlier cultural phase (c. 4500 – 3700 BC [16], [20], also referred to as the Late Neolithic period), which in this region preceded the Naqada culture (i.e., the Predynastic/Chalcolithic period) beginning c. 3800/3700 BC [16], [20]. Both phases occur in the cemeteries at the two sites.
Microscopical analysis by Jones at the later cemetery HK43 at Hierakonpolis (Predynastic period, Naqada IIA-C, c. 3600 – 3400 BC), had confirmed the presence of a ‘resinous’ substance permeating thick layers of linen firmly wrapped around parts of a number of bodies, most notably the back of the head, the jaw and the hands [21]. These observations were based on physical appearance only, not on biochemical analyses. Consequently, the nature and composition, and therefore significance of these amorphous organic residues at Hierakonpolis necessarily remains unknown. Yet the pattern of textile use was reminiscent of early reports of Badarian period inhumations at the site of Badari, which mention seven cases in which the head was wrapped in textile and one example of a pad of textile at the hands [18].
The possibility of the same, or a similar, anthropogenic process used in the earliest documented Egyptian burials prompted scientific investigation of this older material held in Bolton Museum [1]. Nine samples of wrappings from Badari and 42 from Mostagedda were examined microscopically for traces of ‘resins’ (Figures S1–S12 in Appendix S1). Badarian and Predynastic samples from Mostagedda were selected for chemical investigation because of the greater quantity available, and in order to give a time series from a single site.
Characteristic artifacts (pottery, stone palettes), and the location of the tombs in the cemeteries, provide sound archaeological evidence for the relative dating of the burials [19], [22] (Table S1 in Appendix S1). The spin direction of the yarn from which the textiles were woven is also a contributing factor. A major technological change in the direction of spin from the ‘Z’ direction to the ‘S’ occurred in the early Predynastic period; extant Egyptian textiles from early Naqada IB (c. 3700/3600 BC) onward are woven from ‘S’ twist yarn [23].
Radiocarbon dating was undertaken on a number of these samples (Fig. 1) to provide calendrical calibration of the significant archaeological evidence for these Mostagedda burials. A combination of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and thermal desorption/pyrolysis (TD/Py)-GC-MS facilitates the molecular separation, characterization and identification of both the free (solvent extractable) biomarker compounds, and the recognizable sub-units of polymeric materials not amenable to the more conventional GC-MS approach [14].
The table displays the data corresponding to these probability distributions at 68.2% and 95.4% probability. The shaded areas denote the accepted archaeological age range for the Badarian (top of picture) and Naqada IIC period (bottom) respectively. (Figure generated using OxCal 4.1 (Bronk Ramsey 2009)).
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103608.g001
Textile specimens in the Bolton Museum were initially examined at low magnification with a Leica MZ6 stereomicroscope, and those that presented themselves likely to have ‘resin’ were photographed macroscopically and then through the stereomicroscope, with incident twin-armed fiberoptic illumination [24]. Further examination was carried out in the microscopy unit in the Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. The most convincing depiction of the ‘toffee-like’ (presumed) resin was effected in the light microscope using Epiplan HD (Hellfeld/Dunkelfeld = Brightfield/Darkfield) objectives on a Zeiss Universal microscope [25] (Fig. 2).
The most convincing depiction of the ‘toffee-like’ (presumed) ‘resin’ was effected in the light microscope using HD illumination.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103608.g002
Darkfield epi-illumination techniques require very strong illumination but give an image with brilliant contrast well-suited to very high quality colour photography. There was no heat damage to the specimen, but the major disadvantage is the very limited and virtually uncontrollable depth of field. A rotatable sector stop in the light path will reduce the intensity but promote the possibility of adding controlled relief to the image.
Investigations involved the excision of a piece of yarn 3 to 4 mm in length, which was placed in a drop of glycerine on a 3″×1″ microscope slide. The ultimate (individual) flax fibres were carefully teased apart with a pair of mounted needles, and covered with a No. 1 cover slip, carefully avoiding air bubbles. Observation with transmitted light illumination (Brightfield/Crossed polars) showed that the resinous substances had been incorporated into the cell walls.
Samples of textile were dated at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU), University of Oxford. The samples were treated with a dilute acid wash (0.5 M HCl at RT for 30 mins), rinsed and dried. Combustion of the treated samples was achieved using a Europa Scientific ANCA-MS system, comprising a 20-20 IR mass spectrometer linked with a Roboprep or Carlo-Erba CHN sample converter unit. This operates in a continuous flow mode with a He carrier gas. δ13C values are reported with reference to VPDB. Graphitisation of CO2 was achieved using the standard ORAU method that is outlined in Dee and Bronk Ramsey [26]. The Oxford AMS radiocarbon instrumentation is described by Bronk Ramsey [27]. Radiocarbon dates are expressed as conventional radiocarbon ages BP after Stuiver and Polach [28]. The determinations obtained were corrected based on the quantified proportions of modern and 14C-free exogenous carbon in them derived from conservation attempts on the textiles (see Appendix S1).
The amorphous organic residues were chemically characterized and identified using a dual analytical approach of conventional gas chromatography (GC-MS) and sequential thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS) and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), thereby allowing the chemical analysis of both free and bound/polymerized biomarkers likely to be present [14].
The samples for GC and GC-MS were initially ground to a fine powder. A weighed amount of these ground samples (from ∼0.5–25 mg depending on sample available) was taken, and where appropriate an internal standard was added for quantification (10–100 µg of tetratriacontane, n-C34 alkane). These samples were then extracted with an appropriate volume (0.1–1 mL) of chloroform-methanol solution (2∶1 v/v; 3×60 min sonication). After centrifugation (20 min, 1000 rpm) the supernatant solvent was removed from the residue and placed in a vial. The three extracts were combined and the solvent reduced by rotary evaporation. Following transfer of the combined extracts to a screw-capped vial, the remaining solvent was removed by evaporation under a gentle stream of nitrogen at 40°C. The residue was reweighed to give total lipid extracts (TLE). The TLEs were trimethylsilylated using N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co., St Louis, MO, USA) containing 1% of trimethylchlorosilane (30–50 µl, 70°C, 1 hour). Excess BSTFA was then removed under a gentle stream of nitrogen and the derivatized sample redissolved in dichloromethane and analyzed by GC and GC-MS. Identification of compounds was achieved on the basis of both their mass spectra (NIST Mass Spectral Database and additional data referenced in the Appendix S1), and retention times (see Appendix S1), and the analysis of reference samples.
The samples for sequential TD-GC-MS and Py-GC-MS were initially ground to a fine powder prior to analysis. A weighed amount of these ground samples (0.1–1 mg of sample weighed using a microanalytical balance) was taken and these samples loaded into quartz tubes before being inserted into the pyrolysis probe for TD/Py-GC-MS. The samples were thermally desorbed at 310°C, followed by pyrolysis at 610°C. The TD/Py temperature was held for 10 s. Identification of compounds was achieved on the basis of both their mass spectra (NIST Mass Spectral Database and additional data referenced in Appendix S1), and retention times (see Appendix S1), and the analysis of reference samples.
The results of this study are summarized in Table 1. The amount of organic residue – ‘resin’ (sensu lato) – extracted from the samples varied according to the type of material analyzed (Table 1). As might be expected, two of the reed matting samples yielded little extractable organic material (<1%), with any ‘resin’ likely to derive from limited contact with the impregnated textiles from the bodies (although see results on the aromatic plant extract below). One reed matting sample did contain an appreciable amount of extractable ‘resin’ (28%), likely to be explained by the particularly ‘shiny’ nature of this sample, suggesting it had a coating of the ancient ‘resin’ recipe on its surface. In contrast, the ‘resin’ sample analyzed was largely solvent soluble (56%), reflecting its nature as an amorphous organic residue. The organic extract from the skin sample constituted 18% of the total sample, which is consistent with ‘resin’ adhering to the surface of the body, as might be expected, and possibly a component from undegraded human skin lipids. Of the ‘resin’-impregnated textile samples analyzed, where the majority of the sample would be expected to be the cellulose-based linen, the ancient ‘resin’ component constituted 2–13%, with an average of 7%. The abundance of ancient ‘resin’ in these samples correlates with what would be expected in each of these types of materials, providing a sound archaeological context for a meaningful scientific investigation, with a particular focus on the ‘resin’ impregnating the textiles used to wrap around the bodies in these burials.
doi:10.13
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