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Amphetamine and methamphetamine are central nervous system stimulants used to treat a variety of conditions; when used recreationally , they are colloquially known as 'speed. During World War II, amphetamine and methamphetamine were used extensively by Allied and Axis forces for their stimulant and performance-enhancing effects. Due to the large underground market for these drugs, they are often illegally synthesized by clandestine chemists , trafficked , and sold on the black market. Nathanson, a Los Angeles physician, in During World War II, amphetamine and methamphetamine were used extensively by both the Allied and Axis forces for their stimulant and performance-enhancing effects. Also in the s, the Japanese Ministry of Health banned stimulant production, although drug companies continued to produce stimulants that wound up on the black market. From to , a series of acts were passed by the Japanese government to try to stop production and sale of stimulants; however, the production and sale of stimulant drugs continued through criminal syndicates such as Yakuza criminal organizations. On the streets, it is also known as S, Shabu, and Speed, in addition to its old trademarked name. The United States in the s saw the start of significant use of clandestinely manufactured methamphetamine, most of which was produced by motorcycle gangs. Newspaper reports described dancers emerging from clubs at 5 a. Andrew Wilson argues that for a significant minority, 'amphetamines symbolised the smart, on-the-ball, cool image' and that they sought 'stimulation not intoxication \\\\\\\\\\[ Dick Hebdige argues that mods used amphetamines to extend their leisure time into the early hours of the morning and as a way of bridging the gap between their hostile and daunting everyday work lives and the 'inner world' of dancing and dressing-up in their off-hours. After decades of reported abuse, in the United States Food and Drug Administration USFDA banned Benzedrine inhalers \\\\\\\\\\[ citation needed \\\\\\\\\\] , and limited amphetamine to prescription use, but non-medical use remained common. Substituted amphetamine use has historically been especially common among Major League Baseball players and is usually known by the slang term 'greenies'. The ban is enforced through periodic drug-testing. However, the MLB has received some criticism because the punitive consequences for amphetamine use are dramatically less severe than for anabolic steroid use, with the first offense bringing only a warning and further testing. Methamphetamine was formerly in widespread use by truck drivers to combat symptoms of somnolence and to increase their concentration during driving, especially in the decades prior to the signing by former president Ronald Reagan of Executive Order , which initiated mandatory random drug testing of all truck drivers and employees of other DOT-regulated industries. Up to a quarter of college students use Adderall to help them focus on their studies instead of its intended purpose of helping people with ADHD. This use sometimes continues after the student graduates college due to its addictive properties. As of , amphetamines, especially Adderall, were increasingly being used by young white-collar workers who work long hours at demanding work. Many felt drug use was necessary to perform adequately. One of the earliest uses of amphetamine and methamphetamine was during World War II , when they were used by Axis and Allied forces. As early as , Akira Ogata synthesized methamphetamine via reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. Later, the chemists Hauschild and Dobke from the German pharmaceutical company Temmler developed an easier method for converting ephedrine to methamphetamine. As a result, it was possible for Temmler to market it on a large scale as a nonprescription drug under the trade name Pervitin methamphetamine hydrochloride. It was not until that Pervitin became a controlled substance, requiring a special prescription to obtain. It was widely distributed across German military ranks and divisions, from elite forces to tank crews and aircraft personnel, with many millions of tablets being distributed throughout the war for its performance-enhancing stimulant effects and to induce extended wakefulness. In the s and s, the drug was widely administered to Japanese industrial workers to increase their productivity. Amphetamine was also given to Allied bomber pilots during World War II to sustain them by fighting off fatigue and enhancing focus during long flights. Air Force pilots. Due to amphetamines addiction liability in some people, newer wakefulness promoting drugs such as modafinil have been seen as possible safer alternatives for military use in some countries, including the United States. It has also been called a 'contemporary western' by series creator Vince Gilligan. The writers and poets of the Beat Generation used amphetamine extensively, mainly under the Benzedrine brand name. Jack Kerouac was a particularly avid user of amphetamine, which was said to provide him with the stamina needed to work on his novels for extended periods of time. Amphetamine is frequently mentioned in the work of American journalist Hunter S. One afternoon about three days ago \\\\\\\\\\[the publishers\\\\\\\\\\] showed up at my door with no warning, and loaded about forty pounds of supplies into the room: two cases of Mexican beer, four quarts of gin, a dozen grapefruits, and enough speed to alter the outcome of six Super Bowls. Meanwhile, \\\\\\\\\\[ About four fingers of king-hell Crank would do the trick, but I am not optimistic. Scottish author Irvine Welsh often portrays drug use in his novels, though in one of his journalism works he comments on how drugs including amphetamine have become part of consumerism and how his novels Trainspotting and Porno reflect the changes in drug use and culture during the years that elapsed between the two texts. The northern soul and mod subcultures in England were known for their characteristic amphetamine use. DJ Roger Eagle got out of the northern soul scene, saying: 'All they wanted was fast-tempo black dance music Many rock songs have been written about amphetamine. For example, in the track entitled ' St. Hollywood Undead references the negative effects of substituted amphetamines in the song 'City' from their album Swan Songs. Punk-rock band NOFX have incorporated references to amphetamines and other stimulants, the two most obvious being the song 'Three on Speed' from the Surfer 8-inch LP in reference to the three guys being on amphetamine while recording the album , and the album The Longest Line is in reference to a 'line' of Amphetamine ready for insufflation. English gothic rock band The Sisters of Mercy refers to the drug in their song 'Amphetamine Logic' from their first album, First and Last and Always , and their singer Andrew Eldritch is associated with amphetamine use. Many rock and roll bands have named themselves after amphetamine and the drug slang and drug culture surrounding it. For example, Mod revivalists The Purple Hearts named themselves after the amphetamine tablets popular with mods during the s, as did the Australian band of the same name during the mids. Producer David O. Selznick , an amphetamine user, would often dictate long and rambling memos to his directors under the influence of amphetamine. The title of the movie Amphetamine plays on the double meaning of the word in Chinese. He then promptly resumed his amphetamine use. Adderall use in the video gaming industry has been receiving more and more attention in recent years. Many gamers have admitted to using it and have claimed that it has become a very widespread issue. Some gamers have even claimed that pills are regularly sold at professional tournaments. The Electronic Sports League said that it would test players for performance-enhancing drugs starting at a tournament in August ESL said it would work with two international agencies — the same ones that help oversee anti-doping policies for cycling, the Olympics and other sports — to create anti-doping guidelines and a testing program for players. However, the league has never conducted drug tests of its players. Non-medical use of amphetamines in higher education has seen a large increase in popularity. College and other higher education students have reported using amphetamines for many different purposes such as partying, self medication, and the most common being studying. Particularly, in the United States where amphetamine misuse is classified by the FDA as a Schedule II drug, which could potentially carry a felony offense if the user is found guilty of possession. Both amphetamine and methamphetamine are used recreationally as euphoriants and aphrodisiacs , with methamphetamine being the more common recreational drug due to precursor availability and relative ease to manufacture. Slang terms for methamphetamine, especially common among illicit users, are numerous and vary from region to region. The effects of methamphetamine are proportional to the rate at which the blood level of the drugs increases. Consequently, the administration route affects the risk for psychological dependence and addiction independently of other risk factors, such as dosage and frequency of use. While the onset of the rush induced by injection can occur in as little as a few seconds, the oral route of administration requires up to half an hour before the initial high sets in. Drug injection via intravenous administration , intramuscular administration , or subcutaneous administration carries relatively greater risks than other methods of administration. As with the injection of any drug, if a group of users share a common needle without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases, such as HIV or hepatitis, can be transmitted. Smoking refers to vaporizing a drug and inhaling the resulting fumes; crystal methamphetamine methamphetamine hydrochloride and the free bases of amphetamine and methamphetamine are sufficiently volatile substances to allow them to be 'smoked', though this is somewhat of a misnomer, as it is not directly combusted. Instead, crystal methamphetamine is commonly vaporized in glass paraphernalia known as base pipes \\\\\\\\\\[78\\\\\\\\\\] , but may colloquially be referred to as 'bubbles', 'globes', or 'stems' rose-stem water containers are often used as a makeshift pipe in urban populations. Lung disease has been reported in long-term methamphetamine smokers. Crystal methamphetamine and salts of amphetamine are sometimes powdered and insufflated by recreational users, which results in a fairly rapid uptake of the drug through the nasal epithelium ; with regular use, amphetamine or methamphetamine insufflation slowly damages and eventually destroys the nasal septum due to their causticity and vasoconstrictive effects. Rectal administration and intravaginal administration are less-popular drug routes in the community with comparatively little research into their effects. Methamphetamine is most structurally similar to amphetamine. Synthesis is relatively simple, but entails risk with flammable and corrosive chemicals, particularly the solvents used in extraction and purification. The six major routes of production begin with either phenylpropanone P2P or with one of the isomeric compounds pseudoephedrine and ephedrine. One procedure uses the reductive amination of phenylacetone with methylamine , \\\\\\\\\\[84\\\\\\\\\\] P2P was usually obtained from phenylacetic acid and acetic anhydride , \\\\\\\\\\[85\\\\\\\\\\] and phenylacetic acid might arise from benzaldehyde , benzylcyanide, or benzylchloride. Pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, phenylacetone, and phenylacetic acid are currently DEA list I and acetic anhydride is list II on the DEA list of chemicals subject to regulation and control measures. This method can involve the use of mercuric chloride and leaves behind mercury and lead environmental wastes. The alternative Leuckart route also relies on P2P to produce a racemic product, but proceeds via methylformamide in formic acid to an intermediate N-formyl-methamphetamine, which is then decarboxylated with hydrochloric acid. Illicit methamphetamine is more commonly made by the reduction of ephedrine or pseudoephedrine , which produces the more active d-methamphetamine isomer. Though dating back to the discovery of the drug, the Nagai route \\\\\\\\\\[93\\\\\\\\\\] did not become popular among illicit manufacturers until c. The hydrogen iodide is replaced by iodine and water in the 'Moscow route'. The phosphorus assists in the second step, by consuming iodine to form phosphorus triiodide which decomposes in water to phosphorous acid , regenerating hydrogen iodide. The reaction can also create toxic, flammable white phosphorus waste. The conceptually similar Emde route involves reduction of ephedrine to chloroephedrine using thionyl chloride SOCl 2 , followed by catalytic hydrogenation. The catalysts for this reaction are palladium or platinum. The Birch reduction , also called the 'Nazi method', became popular in the mid-to-late s and comprised the bulk of methamphetamine production in Michigan in The reaction is allowed to stand until the ammonia evaporates. It has been the most popular method in Midwestern states of the U. The method is suitable for such small batches that pseudoephedrine restrictions are less effective, it uses chemicals that are easier to obtain though no less dangerous than traditional methods , and it is so easy to carry out that some addicts have made the drug while driving. Hydrogen chloride gas produced by a reaction of salt with sulfuric acid is then used to recover crystals for purification. The container needs to be 'burped' periodically to prevent failure under accumulating pressure, as exposure of the lithium to the air can spark a flash fire. Short-term exposure to high concentrations of chemical vapors that exist in black-market methamphetamine laboratories can cause severe health problems and death. Methamphetamine cooks, their families, and first responders are at high risk of experiencing acute health effects from chemical exposure, including lung damage and chemical burns to the body. In Japan, methamphetamine seizures are usually white crystals of high purity, but contain impurities that vary according to the means of production, and are sometimes adulterated. Diagnostic impurities are the naphthalenes 1-benzyl-methylnaphthalene and 1,3-dimethylphenylnaphthalene, \\\\\\\\\\[96\\\\\\\\\\] arising in the Nagai and Leuckart routes, and cis- or trans- 1,2-dimethylphenylaziridine, ephedrine, or erythro-3,4-dimethyl- 5-phenyloxazolidine, arising in the Nagai and Emde routes; these are absent in the reductive amination route. A common adulterant is dimethyl sulfone , a solvent and cosmetic base without known effect on the nervous system; other adulterants include dimethylamphetamine HCl, ephedrine HCl, sodium thiosulfate , sodium chloride , sodium glutamate , and a mixture of caffeine with sodium benzoate. In the United States, illicit methamphetamine comes in a variety of forms with prices varying widely over time. Impurities may result in a brownish or tan color. Colorful flavored pills containing methamphetamine and caffeine are known as ya ba Thai for 'crazy medicine'. An impure form of methamphetamine is sold as a crumbly brown or off-white rock, commonly referred to as 'peanut butter crank'. Another popular method is to combine methamphetamine with other stimulant substances , such as caffeine or cathine , into a pill known as a 'Kamikaze', which can be particularly dangerous due to the synergistic effects of multiple stimulants. Reports in of the appearance of flavored ' Strawberry Quik meth ' circulated in the media and local law enforcement, \\\\\\\\\\[\\\\\\\\\\] but were debunked in by the DEA, although meth of varying colors has been seized. Until the early s, the U. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the socio-cultural aspects and history of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Pervitin, a methamphetamine brand used by German soldiers during World War II, was dispensed in these tablet containers. Obetrol , a pharmaceutical mixture of amphetamine and methamphetamine salts, was medically indicated and marketed for treating obesity , as illustrated in this advertisement from See also: Sex and drugs and Party and play. See also: Illegal drug trade. Retrieved 27 September Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft in German. London: Routledge. Vermont Department of Health. Government of Vermont. Archived from the original on 19 April Retrieved 29 January Levy; Kavita Kalidas 26 February Norman S. Miller ed. Academic Press. Berkeley, California: Transform Press. ISRN Dentistry. Allied Sci. United States Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 4 November Archived from the original on 14 February Retrieved 18 March The Internet Journal of Criminology. Archived from the original PDF on 13 July Retrieved 2 November Amphetamines and caffeine are stimulants that increase alertness, improve focus, decrease reaction time, and delay fatigue, allowing for an increased intensity and duration of training United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Archived from the original on 28 November J Hist Med Allied Sci. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 16 January Bulletin on Narcotics. Retrieved 14 July World Health Organization. United Nations Treaty Collection. United Nations. Retrieved 11 November New York: United Nations. International Narcotics Control Board. August Archived from the original PDF on 5 December Retrieved 19 November Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine'. Retrieved 8 May Palm Beach Post. Archived from the original on 17 December Retrieved 2 December Archived from the original on 25 December Preusser, Richard D. Blomberg, Allan F. Williams, J. Michael Walsh In Steven W. Gust ed. Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data. National Institute on Drug Abuse Research. This study has provided the first objective data regarding the use of potentially abusive drugs by tractor-trailer drivers Prescription stimulants, such as amphetamine, methamphetamine, and phentermine were found in 5 percent of the \\\\\\\\\\[\\\\\\\\\\] drivers \\\\\\\\\\[who participated in the study\\\\\\\\\\], often in combination with similar but less potent stimulants, such as phenylpropanolamine. Nonprescription stimulants were detected in 12 percent of the drivers, about half of whom gave no medical explanation for their presence One limitation of these findings is that 12 percent of the randomly selected drivers refused to participate in the study or provided insufficient urine and blood for testing; the distribution of drugs among these 42 drivers is unknown Finally, the results apply to tractor-trailer drivers operating on a major east-west interstate route in Tennessee. Drug incidence among other truck-driver populations are unknown and may be higher or lower than reported here. Cable News Network. Retrieved 10 June The New York Times. Retrieved 19 April Harvard University Press. New York: Stein and Day. Spiegel Online. London, UK: Penguin Books. Retrieved 21 November Bloomsbury, Retrieved 19 December The Age. Archived from the original on 13 January Retrieved 26 January Air Force Verdict'. CBC News Online. Retrieved 30 August Local IQ. Archived from the original on 3 April Retrieved 31 May Schaffer Drug Library. Retrieved 1 June New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 May New York: Warner Books. Retrieved 13 October New York: Hyperion. Retrieved 5 February Perceived academic benefit is associated with nonmedical prescription stimulant use among college students. Retrieved 2 April PLOS One. National Geographic Channel. Retrieved 1 January New Zealand Police'. Retrieved 9 January Science in Africa. Archived from the original on 21 January Drugs, Inc. TV documentary. Archived from the original on 1 May Retrieved 1 September Retrieved 23 March Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. Abstemious Outpatient Clinic. Archived from the original on 3 September Retrieved 26 November University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Archived from the original PDF on 16 August Retrieved 15 January Retrieved 10 April La Revue du Praticien. All Treatment. Brain Research. Remburg; A. Stead Amphetamine syntheses. Thoth Press. Makino Secrets of methamphetamine manufacture 8 ed. Festering Publications. Archived from the original on 27 August Department of Justice. Laboratory and Scientific Section 1 March Archived from the original PDF on 24 May Journal of Health Science. Cantrell et al. October Forensic Science International. Journal of Organometallic Chemistry. Cantrell Retrieved 18 December Archived from the original on 10 September New York Daily News. Associated Press. The Columbus Packet. Archived from the original on 7 February Fire Engineering. November Archived from the original on 27 October Retrieved 17 November CBS News. Retrieved 9 August Retrieved 25 August Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived from the original on 14 May Retrieved 3 May National Drug Intelligence Center. January Archived from the original PDF on 10 April Mexican TCOs pose the greatest criminal drug threat to the United States; no other group is currently positioned to challenge them. These Mexican poly-drug organizations traffic heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine, and marijuana throughout the United States, using established transportation routes and distribution networks. While all of these Mexican TCOs transport wholesale quantities of illicit drugs into the United States, the Sinaloa Cartel appears to be the most active supplier. The Sinaloa Cartel leverages its expansive resources and dominance in Mexico to facilitate the smuggling and transportation of drugs throughout the United States. Dexedrine ProCentra Zenzedi. Dextromethamphetamine Levomethamphetamine. Amphetamine dependence Meth mouth Prenatal methamphetamine exposure. United States Native Americans Australia. Recreational drug use. Calea zacatechichi Silene capensis. Coffee break Coffeehouse Latte art Tea house. Abuse Date rape drug Impaired driving Drug harmfulness Effects of cannabis Addiction Dependence Prevention Opioid replacement therapy Rehabilitation Responsible use Drug-related crime Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder Long-term effects of cannabis Neurotoxicity Overdose Passive smoking of tobacco or other substances. 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