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You have full access to this open access article. This paper presents the results of an archaeobotanical analysis of plant macro-remains recovered during excavations of a rural tepe site at Qaratepe, Azerbaijan, occupied during the Sasanian and Islamic periods between the 2nd and 13th centuries ad. This assemblage therefore forms a rare and unique contribution to the field of archaeobotany in the Late Antique and Islamic periods in Azerbaijan and provides the first archaeobotanical evidence of crop husbandry at a rural settlement during these periods. In total, 8, carbonised plant remains representing a minimum of 60 species were recorded from 80 samples analysed, providing important insights into plant utilisation in Azerbaijan Full taxonomic list available in on-line supplementary material ESM. Archaeobotanical evidence has revealed the range of crops cultivated and consumed at the site between the 2nd and 13th centuries. The study has also identified the cultivation of rice Oryza sativa , watermelon Citrullus lanatus , and melon Melo sativa in the 13th century, indicating a change in agricultural production in the Islamic period and the introduction of several new cultivars and agricultural adaptions. The Southern Caucasus is one of the most culturally rich regions of the world, containing incredible archaeological diversity with an almost uninterrupted sequence of human occupation from the Lower Palaeolithic. It is also one of the most botanically diverse regions of the planet and was identified in the s as one of the secondary centres of domestication of cereals Vavilov , , , ; Vavilov and Freier As a result, it has played a subordinate role to research of early agriculture to the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. While recent research of the prehistoric periods in the Southern Caucasus has witnessed an upsurge Wasylikowa et al. In periods rich in historical literature, the potential of archaeobotany to inform archaeologists about the agricultural economy and daily lives of people in the past has not been realised and the use of environmental techniques has thus not been widely adopted. This has resulted in very little archaeobotanical material being recovered and consequently, reconstructions of agriculture and diet rely almost solely on textual sources, supplemented by occasional finds of materials from s to 60s excavations Vaidov As a result little is understood archaeobotanically about the agricultural landscape and diet, leaving the region out of current academic debates on agriculture development in Eastern Europe, Central Asian, or Near Eastern archaeology. This research addresses this issue by providing the first modern archaeobotanical analyses of materials from sites dating to the Late Antique and Islamic periods in Azerbaijan. It is the only known example of this archaeological settlement type in the area, surviving the Soviet period landscape modifications and management practices of the early 20th century. It commands a dominant position on the flat agricultural plain and is surrounded by arable fields, marshy lowlands and scrub areas used to graze sheep, goats, cattle, and buffalo. Detritus from Soviet-era activity litters the mound and modern agricultural installations are found scattered across the site, which has become heavily overgrown with tough vegetation Wordsworth , a , b , , a , b. Between and the Archaeological Exploration of Barda expedition conducted excavations at Qaratepe mound uncovering occupation sequences dating between the 2nd and 13th centuries. In total 6 investigations Trenches 1—6 were conducted at different areas of the site revealing fluctuating periods of occupation and abandonment at the site over approximately 1, years. Five investigations were established at Qaratepe to explore the mound, with the aim of understanding the general site stratigraphy and the identification of archaeological features. The earliest phases of occupation excavated were encountered within these trenches, where deposits were found to date to the 2nd—3rd century ad Wordsworth and Wencel A similar set of features were encountered in each of the Trenches 2—5 consisting of outdoor dumping areas, pits and midden-type layers where large volumes of broken ceramic, bone, and large quantities of burnt material which appears to have been disposed of, with evidence of in-situ burning indicating refuse burning. Thirty samples in total were collected from archaeological features in Trenches 2—6 features. The samples produced carbonised specimens and provide rare evidence of the plant taxa utilised during the earliest habitation of the mound during the Late Antique period. The largest of the Qaratepe investigations, Trench 1, was located on a raised area of the mound located at its eastern edge and thought to be a citadel-type fortified position. Here, a substantial mudbrick structure was encountered approximately 30 cm beneath the surface Fig. The structure consisted of several rooms, two of which were excavated. During these excavations clear indications of its destruction in a catastrophic fire was evidenced by the presence of heavily charred deposits, and the collapse of structural material. These deposits contained high volumes of carbonised material including burnt mudbrick fragments, matting, roof tiles, charcoal and soft, ashy deposits secondary burning, building collapse after initial conflagration above a scorched and fire-reddened floor surface. Frequent indications of burning were identified on recovered artefacts, heat damaged plaster, and several fragments of fused glass, attest to the ferocity of the incident Michelsen and Penn The recovery of several complete but smashed glass and ceramic vessels on the floor of the structure indicates a rapid and disorderly type evacuation and abandonment of the structure. Space 11 consisted of a simple rectangular room, built with thick unfired mudbrick walls. The floor of the room was un-tiled, consisting of a compacted rammed earth surface. Collapsed debris from within the room contained large wooden posts and belonging to the superstructure holding up the roof which was covered with terracotta ceramics tiles indicated by the recovery of ceramic roof-tile fragments. The room lacked any general habitation-type evidence, such as a hearth feature and therefore likely functioned as a storage space. Excavations recovered a total of sherds of ceramic vessels and six whole pots, four smashed and two complete on the surface of the room. The morphology and construction of these vessels were analysed and due to the coarse nature of the fabrics and lack of glazing or design, were interpreted as simple ceramics related to cooking or storage activities Michelsen and Penn ; Wordsworth and Wencel The nature of the destruction purpose or accidental is unknown. Occasional charred insect remains were recovered but none were identified as storage pests from an infestation, a common reason to purposefully destroy grain storage Smith and Kenward The totality of evidence indicates that Space 11 likely was used as a storage room, with the carbonised grain recovered from the surface likely spilled during the conflagration. Radiocarbon dates derived from wood and cereal grains Triticum sp. Occupation of the mound was contemporary with a period of major Sasanian construction in the Southern Caucasus and the founding of several cities including the nearby city of Partaw modern Barda and the construction of major fortifications of the northern frontier at Derbent and Dariali Gadjiev ; Sauer ; Sauer et al. After the destruction of the building, the mound of Qaratepe appears to have been abandoned for several centuries Wordsworth , a , , a. Excavation revealed a number of graves dating to the 8th—9th century which cut the mudbrick structure, indicating the areas usage as an unofficial cemetery for a time. No evidence of habitation in the area of the mound excavated was identified for a period of approximately years, when a reoccupation phase of the space was encountered dating to the 13th century. Here tandir bread ovens Fig. The permanency of this reoccupation space is difficult to determine, as no structural features were identified, and it may have been used in a more ephemeral way compared to the previous period. In total nine samples were collected from these features for analyses. Post-excavation photography of excavated tandir oven dating to the 13th century layers AEB Project During the excavations a systematic soil sampling strategy was implemented at the site by the excavation team. Eighty samples, totalling 1, L, were collected from features and processed using the flotation method at the nearby expedition base in Barda. A Siraf-type flotation tank was constructed to process the soil samples collected. Numerous analyses, tests, and comparisons have been undertaken on flotation tanks confirming their effectiveness to include the full spectrum of plant remains contained within archaeological samples Struever ; Stewart and Robertson ; Williams ; Minnis and LeBlanc ; Watson ; Schaaf ; Wagner ; Hastorf and Popper ; Miller , ; Hunter and Gassner ; Hastorf ; Pearsall ; Pennington and Weber ; Wright ; Steiner et al. Counts in the taxonomic tables for each sample derive from the following quantification method. In each sample, the minimum number of individuals MNI is counted based on the minimum number of characteristic plant parts. In cereals, where an embryo is present on a cereal grain, it was counted as a whole grain and where it was absent, it was counted as one-grain fragment 3 fragments are counted as one cereal grain after McClatchie et al. Chaff fragments have been counted individually i. Ubiquity also called frequency or presence value is a common statistical technique used in archaeobotanical research, being originally borrowed from quantitative ecology Miksicek ; Jones Ubiquity disregards the absolute count of the taxon and instead refers to the number of samples in which a particular taxon, economic grouping, or plant part is present. It measures how many samples contain the taxon, based on the observation that a taxon is present or not in each sample Popper ; Reitz and Shackley This measurement is expressed as a percentage by dividing the number of samples in which the taxon is present by the total number of samples considered. The ubiquity of plant species identified in the total, site and phase assemblage is recorded in Table 1. The order of various plant families, genera, and species presented follows that of the Flora of Turkey Davies — with the nomenclature of cereals following Zohary et al. Identification of seeds recovered were made utilising several reference collections and literary sources including comparisons with modern and ancient seed reference resources at University College Dublin and University College London, and examination of key reference publications and drawings from various seed atlases including Beijerinck ; Davies —; Katz et al. While a variety of context types were sampled, they were not evenly distributed, and differences can be seen both temporally and chronologically that need considering. Samples recovered from Trenches 2—6 were limited due to the size of the investigations and the lack of variety in context types. These derived solely from deposits and dumps of materials, with the samples from T6 taken from a single jar burial. Although this represents one of the largest assemblages recovered from 2nd—3rd century and documents the presence of several cultivars and fruits species in the Southern Caucasus at this time, the low variety of context types excavated means it is not fully representative of the suite of plant remains that were likely utilised during this period. Contexts encountered in Trench 1 at Qaratepe were more varied, collected from floor deposits, pits, and ceramic pots within the two rooms of the structure. While more varied, the range of contexts and samples were confined to a small area of the total settlement that would have existed on the mound in the Late Antique period. This is also true of the reoccupation phase of Qaratepe. While this compromised a more varied selection of archaeological features, including the first features relating to cooking excavated at the site, it again was limited to a small section of the mound due to the limits of excavation. In total, 8, carbonised and desiccated plant components were recovered. Three broad chronological phases were represented allowing diachronic changes in the assemblage to be investigated and to reveal insights into continuity and change of diet and agricultural practices of people inhabiting Qaratepe over an approximate 1,year period. A total of carbonised remains were recovered from samples dating to the 2nd—3rd centuries. Cereals accounted for only A single rye Secale cereale grain was also recovered which may represent a contaminant of other the cereals, rather than representing a crop. Broomcorn millet was the dominant cultivar recovered from the early phases at Qaratepe comprising Hulled barley H. All wheat recovered was of a naked variety with the chaff of a hexaploid-type indicating the presence of a bread wheat T. Non-cereal cultivars were rare, with only three examples of lentil Lens culinaris recovered in Trenches 3 and 4, representing the only pulses found at Qaratepe. Fruit species were rarely encountered, with the only example recovered from 2nd—3rd-century layers comprising of 15 carbonised grape Vitis vinifera pips Fig. Wild species dominated the assemblage, making up This largely comprised of fat hen Chenopodium album Hordeum vulgare grain and chaff , c. Panicum miliaceum carbonised and dessicated , d. Vitis vinifera , e. Lens culinaris , f. Oryza sativa , g. Citrullus lanatus , h. Punica granatum , i. Rubus sp. Verbena officinalis , k. Rumex sp. Knotweed , m. Persicaria , n. Carex sp. Chenopodium album. A large assemblage of 6, carbonised specimens was recovered from 37 samples related to the final use and destruction of the main structure encountered during excavations. Cereals were dominant in this phase, with several thousand wheat grains recovered from the floor of the destroyed structure. This wheat was identified as naked wheat and comprised Small quantities of spelt Triticum spelta 0. Fruit was again a minor constituent of the 5th—6th century assemblage and in addition to the previously identified grape Vitis vinifera , a small quantity of carbonised fig Ficus carica , and pomegranate Punica granatum was identified Table 2. Wild species comprised Samples from this period produced 1, carbonised plant remains with cereals comprised Naked wheat Here, the earliest recovery of a new cultivar at Qaratepe, rice Oryza sativa , occurred, indicating its addition to the suite of arable taxa utilised at the mound Fig. Fruit continues to be a minor component, comprising 1. This assemblage differs from previous phases with the absence of grape, fig, and pomegranate and recovery of several new edible taxa occurring, most notably mulberry Morus sp. Wild species comprise The excavation at Qaratepe provides a rare opportunity to compare an archaeobotanical assemblage across a period of approximately 1, years in Azerbaijan. Clear differences between the assemblage of the Late Antique and Islamic periods are apparent with the presence of several new food species in the 13th century Fig. The agricultural landscape in the Southern Caucasus during the Late Antique period was based on the cultivation of long-established species broomcorn millet, naked wheat, hulled barley, and grape Vitis vinifera. Each of these species are either native or have a long history of cultivation in the Southern Caucasus, and are well adapted to growing in the region, recovered from archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic period Lisitsina and Prishchepenko ; Lisitsina , Wheat, barley, and millet could all have been grown in the region successfully, although water requirements of wheat and barley may have restricted their growing to the lowland floodplains of rivers or in areas with artificial irrigation. The summer field crop broomcorn millet was the dominant cultivar recovered. First cultivated in China around bce , millet is a thermophilic, highly adaptive species that can grow in semiarid and drought-prone regions, and over a range of altitude zones Baltensperger ; Weber and Fuller ; Weber and Kashyap ; Upadhyaya et al. It can thrive in less fertile soils than other cereals and is more tolerant of drought, pests, and diseases than the larger-grained cereals. It can grow under non-irrigated conditions with as little as — mm of average annual rainfall and is well suited to the lowland region of Azerbaijan and over the Southern Caucasus Habiyaremye et al. Soviet-era publications have reported the presence of broomcorn millet in the Southern Caucasus since the Neolithic period Lisitsina and Prischchepenko ; Lisitsina ; Wasylikowa et al. However, a lack of photographs or morphological descriptions in reports make it difficult to critically assess these records Hunt et al. Furthermore, since these discoveries, no other archaeobotanical excavation of Neolithic layers has recovered millet in the South Caucasus Hovsepyan and Willcox Recent analyses using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios of humans and domestic animals indicate that consumption of millets in the Caucuses does not occur until the second millennium BCE, increasing in the Iron Age Herrscher et al. Millet was recorded in the s and s during excavations at Mingachevir and recent archaeobotanical analyses from Areni-1 Armenia , Kerpijlitepe, and Girag Kasaman Azerbaijan also indicate its commonplace cultivation in the region during the medieval period Vaidov ; Bunyadov ; Smith et al. Evidence of fruit cultivation at Qaratepe during this period is scant with only grape Vitis vinifera recovered. While in the first century ad, Strabo directly mentions that the Caucasian Albanians were involved in viticulture Strabo , pp. Wild species recovered comprised those of hydrophilic species during this phase, indicating wet conditions in the vicinity of the mound. Soviet-era maps of the Qaratepe region indicate that an undulating marshy-type landscape existed in the area, with lowland wet and higher dry patches of land existing before the landscape was heavily modified to facilitate the cultivation of cotton Wordsworth b , These seeds were recovered carbonised in midden and charcoal rich deposits and may have been incorporated into the assemblage during burning events. Another possible vector may be through herbivore dung used as fuel, which can provide important information on subjects such as seasonality, grazing, and herding practices by contributing seeds to archaeobotanical assemblages Fuks and Dunseth While no dung pellets were identified, it is evident through the recovery of animal bones that a range of livestock species were also present at the site, and it seems likely that dung would have been utilised. The small quantity of species typical of pastureland may have entered the site in dung, but this could not be definitely stated. While a similar suite of cultivars was recovered in the 5th—6th century deposits, a difference in the relative frequency of the crops is evident. A large volume of cereal grains were recovered from the floor of the mud brick structure largely consisting of thousands of naked wheat grains. This wheat deposit comprised The high ratio of grain to chaff indicates a cleaned crop ready for human consumption, with the presence of fine-sieve category weeds mixed with the main cereal crop. As stated by van der Veen and Jones assemblages of this nature are most likely to occur on sites where cereals are handled in bulk. Hulled barley by contrast is far less strongly represented during this period, contributing a minor but ubiquitous component of the assemblage. Glume wheats spelt Triticum spelta , oat Avena sativa , and rye were also recovered but in low quantities and are either a minor crop or contaminant of other cereals. The continuation of the cultivation of broomcorn millet is evidenced by the recovery of several hundred carbonised millet grains from the structure. Although recovered in comparable numbers to previous occupation layers, there is a sharp decline in the relative frequency of broomcorn millet from previous phases. Although millet was less prevalent than wheat or barley, its high ubiquity indicates it was a persistent component of the agricultural economy and subsistence at Qaratepe Table 1. The understanding of agricultural production during the 5th-6th century in the Southern Caucasus is of great interest. The establishment of urban centres and fortifications in the Southern Caucasus occurs during this period, including the founding of nearby Barda city ancient Partaw Al-Baladhuri ; Wordsworth a , which would have significantly changed the local population and economy. Changing modes of production at settlements like Qaratepe and the adoption of new crops could be seen as response to the development of these new urban centres. Agriculturalists can be highly adaptable and pay close attention to market signals, changing their land use and crops accordingly Brookfield , p. With increased urbanisation and fortification of the Southern Caucasus by the Sasanian Empire, an increase in the scale of cereal cultivation may have represented an agricultural innovation to increase production to feed a growing non-agricultural population. However, more archaeobotanical research is required to gain a fuller understanding of how changing settlement patterns in the Southern Caucasus would have affected agricultural production and the suite of crops grown. In contrast to the cultivation of annual cereals, fruit cultivation requires a longer-term investment in the landscape, with trees and vines taking several years of cultivation before they produce fruits, suggesting a more intensive type of agricultural practice Fuller and Stevens The recovery of the carbonised wild seeds mixed with the wheat grains, coupled with an absence of a hearth feature in the room, indicates that plant-food processing, rather than dung, is the main source of these species. Analysis of their physical characteristics indicate that the majority were typical of the late stages of crop processing Jones While some of the species identified suggest spring-sown cereals i. Polygonum aviculare , the apparently clean nature of the cereal assemblage obscures the identification of cropping strategies by removing many of the field weeds that grew with crops. Several typically wetland species were also recovered, indicating a continued damp and wet environment in the vicinity of the mound. However, their presence in the grain-rich storeroom assemblage may indicate their deliberate collection Wallace et al. Furthermore modern ethnobotanical research in the Southern Caucasus has demonstrated that many of the wild plant species recovered at Qaratepe are incorporated into the modern diet, used in the craft industry, or employed as folk medical treatments. Potential food plants with edible leaves, seeds or tubers include rush Scirpus , fat hen C. However, direct evidence of their consumption is difficult to establish at Qaratepe. During the 13th century a continuation of an arable agriculture based on the cultivation of naked wheat, hulled barley, and broomcorn millet is evidenced. However, most interesting is the addition of rice, indicating a shift in agricultural production occurred at this time. Archaeobotanical evidence of rice cultivation is scarce, with its presence at Qaratepe comprising one of just three modern archaeobotanical recoveries in the Southern Caucasus to date Smith et al. Rice can be cultivated in a wide range of arable systems varying from wetland to dryland watering regimes Weisskopf et al. Wet rice cultivation in floodplains or paddy field cultivation requires significantly more precipitation 1,—1, mm annually to support its growth, much higher than that naturally occurring in lowland Azerbaijan, and the crop is more laborious to plant and manage than naked wheat or barley Walshaw While there have been instances of earlier recoveries of rice in the Iranian Parthian era to the south in Iran Miller ; van der Veen , rice does not appear to have become an important cultivar in the Southern Caucasus until after the Islamic period Watson ; Stone Another observation in the IGR hypothesis was that the spread of many of the key economic species including rice required agricultural diversification of the summer farming season Watson Watson observed that many of the plants introduced across the Islamic Empires were thermophile species, grown over the summer period Watson ; Decker ; Squatriti The identification of rice at Qaratepe and the nearby city of Barda coincides with the earliest identification of water buffalo Bubalus bubalis in the region and suggests that a possible suite of wetland agricultural innovations occurred at this time, expanding cultivation into the marsh environments from at least the 11th century Wordsworth et al. The presence of water buffalo also confirms the presence of significant permanent wetlands in the Barda region as they require wet habitats to wallow, a behavioural thermoregulation to accelerate heat loss as they are unable to dissipate body-heat through sweating Kassim and Bahsrin ; Wordsworth et al. These wetlands may have also been utilised to cultivate rice with buffalo traditionally used as traction animals to plough paddies, as seen with in many pre-mechanised agricultural societies Higham et al. In nearby Barda city, archaeobotanical analyses of occupational phases dating between the 11th and 16th century also contained rice and barnyard millet Echinochloa oryzicola , an obligatory weed of rice paddy environments Stone According to Watson , during the Islamic period, rice was almost always grown in swamps or on irrigated lands in the Islamic world Watson , p. While further archaeobotanical work will provide a clearer understanding of the establishment of rice cultivation in the region, its presence in the Qaratepe and Barda swampland areas may represent a local adoption of the crop, with migrating agriculturalists taking advantage of the local environment to cultivate it in the Islamic period. Plants typically classified as oil or fibre crops were absent from all phases of the archaeobotanical assemblage from Qaratepe. The presence of Mulberry Morus sp. In nearby Mingachevir, excavations of 3rd—7th century deposits recovered the remains of silk, brocade, linen, wool, and cotton indicating a well-established and varied textile industry in the region Vaidov The recovery of watermelon C. Both species are well suited to the arid, warm sub-tropical and temperate climates of the Azerbaijani lowlands Samuel , p. Watermelon is an important crop in modern Azerbaijani agriculture and can grow in dryland areas without the use of irrigation, and at Qaratepe may have grown in gardens or small plots around the mound Decker , p. Archaeobotanical evidence indicates that both are of African origin and became established in much of the Middle East and Central Asia after the Islamic conquests Watson ; Amar and Lev , p. As with watermelon, melon appears to have been established across much of the Islamic world at the same time, recovered in the Central Asian city of Merv in the 12th century Herrmann and Kurbansakhatov When it initially began to be cultivated in the Southern Caucasus is unknown, but to date, no archaeobotanical evidence of its cultivation before the 11th century has occurred in the Barda region Stone Tandir-style ovens were only encountered in the reoccupation phase at Qaratepe. Ethnographic studies of tandir ovens suggest that they were generally used for the making of bread but could be used for a multitude of other activities, such as boiling, roasting, or parching Gur-Arieh et al. The small quantity of fruit seeds recovered may have fallen into the oven during roasting or were discarded as refuse. A similar range of wild species to those of the storeroom floor were recovered from tandir contexts in the 13th century Table 3. The grasses, sedges, and other small weedy taxa recovered may been used in other activities such as construction materials, pottery manufacture or crop processing, or entered the ovens during food preparation or as waste. The large quantity of charcoal recovered from tandir fills suggest that wood was the primary fuel used in the ovens, but it is conceivable that dung or other refuse could have also been used, but this is difficult to identify Spengler The assemblage at Qaratepe indicates the practice of an agropastoral system at Qaratepe, revolving around the growing of the three main cultivars free-threshing wheat, hulled barley, and broomcorn millet and the raising of animals, with faunal assemblages recovered from Qaratepe demonstrating a diverse range of livestock. These animals would have provided a wide range of primary and secondary products including meat, dairy, eggs, wool, leather, traction, and transportation to the inhabitants of the mound. While analyses of this material is still ongoing, preliminary results indicate that caprids were the dominant species at Qaratepe, followed by chicken and cattle Haruda with sheep, cattle, and horses all likely requiring seasonal migrations during the summer months Potts Agropastoral systems have a long history in the Southern Caucasus with evidence suggesting that this practice has occurred since the Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, where a similar range of cereal grain and animals were cultivated Lindsay and Greene ; Hovsepyan ; Rothman ; Ricci et al. Pastoralists were encountered throughout the frontier regions of the Sasanian Empire with historical sources noting the presence of nomadic groups in north Iran Potts In the 8th century, Muslim traders brought fox-pelts to Barda, Derbent, and Khorasan where they traded with nomads Howard-Johnston and the presence of nomadic people in the Barda region were noted fighting under the governor of the city against the Rus raids of Potts The movement of sheep and cattle to winter pastures is also recorded by Movses Kaghankatvatsi in the 10th century and large numbers of nomadic and semi-nomadic people identified in northern Iran, where the population reportedly numbered half a million tents Thomas and Gascoigne The 11th and 12th centuries witnessed the arrival of the Central Asian nomadic Seljuqs in the Caucasus, followed by the Mongols in the 13th century who also moved animals seasonally and pastured their horses on the fertile grasses of the Armenian highlands in winter Potts Today in Azerbaijan, more than three million head of sheep, goat, and cattle are taken every year to summer pastures over 1, m to graze for — days between June and September Neudert et al. These pastures are an important resource for livestock keeping and are state-owned and administered by local municipalities belediyye or rayon administrations icra hakimiyyeti Neudert and Allahverdiyeva The seasonal cycle at Qaratepe would therefore revolve around the planting of crops and movement of animals. Springtime would require higher labour demands with cattle, sheep and goat producing offspring and cereal fields requiring tending. If cereals were spring-sown, they would be planted, sustained by the meltwaters, or if autumn-sown tended to in the fields. Livestock moved to upland pastures, remained there throughout the hottest and most arid summer months. This seasonal movement is carried out for several reasons, including access to better pasture for milk production, reducing heat stress and alleviating the impact of summer insects on livestock Welton et al. This type of vertical transhumance is practised in the valleys and slopes of many mountainous regions of the world, including the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, Western Britain, and Norway today Costelloe and Svenson While Qaratepe is situated in a lowland plateau, it is bordered by highland and mountainous terrain to the north and west which would have been utilised by pastoralists in the past, where the animals would forage on the rich mountain pasture grasses in cooler temperatures. Millet could also have been sown in upland pastures. The cultivation of fast-maturing millets is compatible with the seasonal migration cycles of a semi-pastoral group summering in the highland pastures, enabling them to take advantage of several ecological niches for food production Di Cosmo ; Weber and Fuller The integration of millet cultivation and semi-nomadic pastoralism has long been recognised as a successful subsistence strategy for populations in semiarid regions worldwide, and millet can grow at altitudes between and 2, m Miller et al. At the mound, the inhabitants would have engaged in daily habitation activities which were primarily related to tending the cereal fields and the maintenance of the commensal unit inhabiting the structure, including food processing, preparation and consumption, manufacture and maintenance of artefacts, activity-area maintenance, and household rituals Rathje and Schiffer In the late summer, people and animals would begin to return from the uplands to Qaratepe. The spring-sown cereals and the summer-sown millet are harvested and processed during this period. Preliminary analyses of the caprid assemblage has revealed the age of slaughter as 18 and 30 months. This pattern is similar to those found in pastoral communities in Central Asia during this period, indicating a similar strategy in raising caprids at Qaratepe Ashleigh Haruda personal communication Animals that are not slaughtered may then graze the harvest fields in the autumn and winter, manuring it, or be fed fodder from the harvest. This period of the seasonal cycle creates a major labour bottleneck for agrarian societies reaping crops and preparing them for storage or consumption Fuller and Stevens and full mobilisation of the inhabitants of Qaratepe would be required for the activities. Cereals were processed and stored fully cleaned for the winter and in late autumn-winter cereals were planted. During the winter, the flocks and herds may have grazed in the lowland area or have been kept in stables to protect them from predators and cold weather. While this combination of animal and plant species could have caused an annual labour bottleneck to some extent during the harvesting time, the choice of crops fits well with an agropastoral strategy, essentially spreading the labour requirements needed throughout the year, with low input cultivation during the summer season to allow for seasonal animal migrations. The presence of rice in the 13th century is therefore intriguing. Introducing changes in agricultural production strategies during the summer months would not have easily allowed for labour at the settlement to be split between tending crops and moving upland with animals and would have put a significant increase on labour demands during the hottest part of the season; therefore, it may have not been considered compatible with their traditional pastoral lifestyle. The addition of a variety of cultivars and more intense use of the wetlands and summer growing season would not have fitted appropriately with the well-established agropastoral system already in place, disrupting the rhythms of the seasonal cycle. Its recovery in the region concurrent with water buffalo introduction, which Wordsworth et al. The suite of arable crops and domesticated animals recovered from the excavations at Qaratepe suggest a well-developed, organised agropastoral-type system practised at Qaratepe, utilising locally produced crops and food plants. While the zooarchaeological assemblage hints at medium-distance trade in saltwater fish Haruda , all plant crops and fruit species recovered from Qaratepe during the Sasanian period could have been grown locally. This is consistent with a self-sufficient food production system not reliant on the trade or import of foodstuffs over great distances. As crop yields are inevitably variable, the growing of a range of cultivars that can tolerate different environmental conditions and take advantage of several ecological niches for food production indicates a risk-buffering strategy to mitigate the probability of a disastrously low yield of a single crop Marston ; Weisskopf et al. The incorporation of seasonal migration of animals coupled with the growth of a range of cereal grains across the growing season can be seen as a diverse risk mitigation strategy Lees and Bates The combination of arable agriculture and pastoral transhumance methods provided a more stable, robust, and diversified subsistence resource base. This provides a level of food security, as in any given year the probability of low yields in all sectors of a mixed economy is significantly lower than it would be in an economy based on a single mode of production Lee and Bates The results obtained provide unique new insights into the agricultural practices and diet of the inhabitants of Qaratepe during the Sasanian and Islamic Periods between the 2nd and 13th centuries ad. Naked wheat, barley and broomcorn millet formed the three main cultivars grown at Qaratepe between the 2nd and 13th centuries, with variations in the relative frequency of these three cultivars identified. Millet dominated the early phases, with a possible increase in wheat cultivation in the 5th—6th century, coinciding with increased urbanisation and fortification of the Southern Caucasus and could have been a response to changing demographics in the region. The increase in the proportion of barley in the 13th century indicates a change in cultivation practices. 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Anatol Stud — Archaeol Res Asia — United Nations Development Programme, Tbilisi. Archaeol Anthropol Sci ,, J Field Archaeol — Williams D Flotation at Siraf. Antiquity — Wordsworth P Preliminary field report: Archaeological exploration of Barda project. Unpublished report. Wordsworth P a Second preliminary field report: Archaeological exploration of Barda project. Wordsworth P b Approaches to understanding provincial structure in the early Islamic Caucasus: historic landscape characterisation in the Kura Plain. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, Vienna, pp — Antiquity 95 Wright PJ Flotation samples and some palaeoethnobotanical implications. Science — University of Oxford Press, Oxford. Download references. I would like to thank the Baku Branch of the Moscow State University for their partnership and assistance in organising archaeological fieldwork. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Correspondence to David Stone. The author have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose or no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and permissions. Stone, D. The archaeobotany of Qaratepe, Azerbaijan 2nd—13th century. Veget Hist Archaeobot 32 , — Download citation. Received : 13 May Accepted : 05 December Published : 09 February Issue Date : May Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany Aims and scope Submit manuscript. Download PDF. Abstract This paper presents the results of an archaeobotanical analysis of plant macro-remains recovered during excavations of a rural tepe site at Qaratepe, Azerbaijan, occupied during the Sasanian and Islamic periods between the 2nd and 13th centuries ad. The first comprehensive archaeobotanical analysis of prehistoric agriculture in Kyrgyzstan Article 11 April Use our pre-submission checklist Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript. Introduction The Southern Caucasus is one of the most culturally rich regions of the world, containing incredible archaeological diversity with an almost uninterrupted sequence of human occupation from the Lower Palaeolithic. Satellite view of Qaratepe mound and surrounding agricultural landscape. Full size image. Materials and methods During the excavations a systematic soil sampling strategy was implemented at the site by the excavation team. Table 1 Ubiquity and sum of cultivars recovered at Qaratepe by period Full size table. Results In total, 8, carbonised and desiccated plant components were recovered. Period A: 2nd—3rd century A total of carbonised remains were recovered from samples dating to the 2nd—3rd centuries. Table 2 Fruit species recovered at Qaratepe from the different time periods excavated Full size table. Table 3 Wild taxa recovered during different periods at Qaratepe Full size table. Discussion Diachronic changes in agriculture The excavation at Qaratepe provides a rare opportunity to compare an archaeobotanical assemblage across a period of approximately 1, years in Azerbaijan. Percentage distribution of cultivar taxa during different periods at Qaratepe. Conclusion The results obtained provide unique new insights into the agricultural practices and diet of the inhabitants of Qaratepe during the Sasanian and Islamic Periods between the 2nd and 13th centuries ad. Data availability All data analysed during this study are included in supplementary information files. Accessed 12 Aug Hastorf CA, Popper VS Current paleoethnobotany: analytical methods and cultural interpretations of archaeological plant remains. Unpublished report for David Maynard, Landsker Archaeology Struever S Flotation techniques for the recovery of small-scale archaeological remains. Am Antiq — Article Google Scholar Wallace M, Glynis J, Charles M et al Re-analysis of archaeobotanical remains from pre- and early agricultural sites provides no evidence for a narrowing of the wild plant food spectrum during the origins of agriculture in southwest Asia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Google Scholar Watson PJ In pursuit of prehistoric subsistence: a comparative account of some contemporary flotation techniques. Unpublished report Wordsworth P a Second preliminary field report: Archaeological exploration of Barda project. Unpublished report Wordsworth P b Approaches to understanding provincial structure in the early Islamic Caucasus: historic landscape characterisation in the Kura Plain. Ethics declarations Conflict of interest The author have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose or no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. Additional information Communicated by S. Supplementary Information. Supplementary material 1 XLSX About this article. Cite this article Stone, D. Copy to clipboard. Search Search by keyword or author Search. Navigation Find a journal Publish with us Track your research.

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