Маркетинг Реферат На Английском
Маркетинг Реферат На Английском
Маркетинг реферат по маркетингу на английском языке
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Маркетинг реферат по маркетингу на английском языке , Сочинения из Основы маркетинга
Маркетинг реферат по маркетингу на английском языке
Сутність маркетингу реферат по маркетингу на украинском языке
Особливості маркетингу послуг реферат по маркетингу на украинском языке
Основи банківського маркетингу реферат по маркетингу на украинском языке
Функціональний підхід у промисловому маркетингу реферат по маркетингу на украинском языке
Методологічні основи міжнародного маркетингу реферат по маркетингу на украинском языке
Основні концепції маркетингу та їх характеристики реферат по маркетингу на украинском языке
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Business battle fiercely, making an enormous variety of
products to meet different customers’ needs. In many businesses,
promotion is the key to a new product success. Promotion is any
technique designed to sell a product to a customer. To sell a product,
promotional techniques must communicate the uses, features, &
benefits of the product. Here we will look at different reasons for &
approaches to promotion, When & why companies use particular tools
& strategies, & the special promotional problems & solutions of small
business.
Promotional Objectives, Strategies, & Tolls
In developing a promotional plan, marketers must consider the
company’s basic promotional objectives. They must develop
promotional strategies to reach those objectives. Then, as a part of
their strategies, they must choose among various promotional tools
that may be used alone or in combination
Promotional Objectives
You may think that the ultimate objective of any type of
promotion is to increase sales. You’re right. After all, the goal of any
business is to make money, & companies make money by making
sales. However, marketers also use promotion to communicate
information, position products, & control sales volume.
Communication of Information.
A very basic objective of promotion is to communicate
information from one person or organization to another. Consumers
cannot buy a product unless they have been informed about it.
Information may advise customers about the availability of a
product. It may educate them on the latest technological advances. Or
it may announce the candidacy of someone running for a government
office.
Information may be communicated in writing (newspapers &
magazines) It may be communicated verbally (in person or over the
telephone) Or it may be communicated visually (television, a match
book cover, or a billboard). Today, the communication of information
regarding a company’s products or services is so important that
markets try to place it wherever consumers may be.
Product Positioning .
Another objective of promotion, Product Positioning, is to
identifiable image of a product in the minds of consumers. For
example, by selling only in
department stores, Lauder products have positioned
themselves as more upscale than cosmetics sold in drugstores. Given
all the brands & trademarks in the marketplace, it is impossible for an
individual to remember each one. Therefore, marketers seek a unique
position in buyer’s minds.
Positioning a product is difficult because the company is trying
to appeal to a specific segment of the market rather than to the
market as a whole. First, the company must identify which segments of
a market could would be likely purchasers of its product & who is
competitors are. Only then can it focus its promotional strategy on
differentiating its product from the competition’s, while appealing to its
target audience.
Controlling Sales Volume.
Another objective of promotions is sales volume control. Many
companies such as Hallmark Cards, experience seasonal sales
patterns. By increasing its promotional activities in slow periods, the
firm can achieve a more stable sales volume throughout the year. As a
result, it can keep its production & distribution systems running evenly.
Promotions can even turn slow seasons into peak sales periods. For
example, greeting card companies & florists together have done much
to create Grandparents’ day.The result has been increased consumer
desire to send cards & flowers to older relatives in the middle of what
was a dry for these industries.
Promotional Strategies
Once a firm’s promotional objectives are clear, it must develop
a promotional strategy to achieve these objectives. Promotional
strategies may be of the push or pull variety. A company with a Push
strategy will aggressively push its product through wholesalers &
retailers, who persuade customers to buy it. In contrast, a company
with Pull strategy appeals directly to customers who demand the
product from retailers, who in turn demand the product from
wholesalers.
Makers from industrial products most often use a Push strategy
And makers of consumer products most often use a Pull strategy. Many
large firms use a combination of the two strategies. For example,
General Foods uses advertising to create consumer demand(pull) for
its cereals. It also pushes wholesalers & retailers to stoke these
products. Once the promotional strategy has been determined, it
guides the company’s choice of promotional objectives & the types of
promotional communicational tools that will be used.
Picking the Right Tools for the Promotional Mix
Based on these strategies, the firm must select the right
promotional tools. There are four basis types of promotional tools:
Advertising, Personal selling, Sales promotions, & Publicity & Public
relations.
The best combination of these tools-the best promotional mix
- depends on many
factors. The company’s product, the costs of different tools versus the
promotional budget, & characteristics in the target audience all play a
role.
The product. The nature of the product being promoted affect
the mix greatly. For example, advertising can reach a large number of
widely dispersed consumers. Thus it is used by makers of products that
might be purchased by anyone, like sunglasses, radios & snack foods.
Companies introducing new products also favor advertising because it
reaches a large number of people very quickly & can repeat a message
many times. Personal selling, on the other hand, is important when the
product appeals to a very specific audience, such as piping or pressure
gauges for industrial accounts.
Cost of the Tolls. The cost of communication tools is also
important. Because personal selling is an expensive communicational
tool, it is most appropriate in marketing high-priced goods like
computers for industrial customers & homes for consumers. In
contrast, advertising reaches more customers per dollar spent.
A promotional mix that is good for one company is not really
good for another. For example, Frito -Lay can afford to spend millions
of dollars on advertising & consumer promotions to promote Ruffles
Cajun Spice potato chips nationally. But Zapps Potato Chips of
Gramercy, Louisiana, the innovator in Cajun flavor potato chips, must
rely on personal selling & publicity to promote its Cajun Craw-taters
locally.
Promotion & the Buyer Decision Process. Another
consideration in establishing the promotional mix is the stage of the
buyer decision process that customers are in. Customers must first
recognize the need to make a purchase. At these stage marketers
need to make sure the buyer is aware that their products exist. Thus,
advertising & publicity, which can reach a large number of people very
quickly, are very important.
At the next stage, customers want to learn more about possible
products. Advertising & personal selling are important because they
both can be used to educate the customer about the product.
During the third stage, customers will evaluate & compare
competing products. Personal selling is vital at this point because sales
representatives can demonstrate their product’s quality & performance
in direct relation to the competition’s product.
Next, customers decide ton a specific product & purchase it.
Sales promotion is effective at these stage because it can give
consumers an incentive to buy. Personal selling can also help by
bringing the product to convenient location for the consumer.
Finally, consumers evaluate the product after buying it.
Advertising, or even personal selling, is sometimes used after the sale
to remind consumers that they made wise & prudent purchases.
Advertising Promotions
Advertising Strategies
Advertising strategies most often depend on which stage of the
product life cycle their product is in. During the introduction stage,
Informative Advertising can help develop an awareness of the
company & its product among buyers & can establish a primary
demand for the product. For example, when a new textbook is being
published, instructors receive direct-mail advertisements notifying
them of the book’s contents & availability.
As products become established, advertising stages must
change. During the growth stage, Persuasive Advertising can
influence customers to buy the company’s products, not those of its
rivals. For example, during its growth stage, Advil used this approach
to attract buyers of Tylenol & other pain relievers. Persuasive
advertising is also important during the maturity stage to maintain the
product’s level of sales. In addition, Comparative Advertising may
help to steal sales away from the competition. After proclaiming that
«most people in Ford country drive Chevy pickups», the ad then
discusses specific features of the two brands, in a classic example of
the comparison approach.
Finally, during the latter part of the maturity stage and all of the
decline stage, Reminder Advertising keeps the product’s name on
the tip of the consumer’s lips. And so Atari continues to advertise its
home video games, even though attention has shifted over to a newer
competitor, Nintendo.
Whatever the product’s life cycle stage, advertising strategies
must consider timing. Should the organization advertise throughout
the year on a continual basis, or seasonally? Companies such as
commercial banks space ads evenly throughout a year.
Advertising Media
In developing advertising strategies, marketers must also
Advertising Medium for their message. IBM, for example,
uses television ads to keep its name fresh in consumers’ minds. But it
uses newspaper & magazine ads to educate consumers on the
product’s abilities & trade publication to introduce new software. Each
advertising medium has its own advantages & disadvantages.
Newspapers. Newspapers are the most widely used
advertising medium, accounting for about 27 % of all advertising
expenditures. Newspapers offer excellent coverage, since each local
market has at least the daily newspaper & many people read the paper
ever day(Like you are).This medium offers flexible, rapid coverage,
since ads can change from day to day. It also offers believable
coverage, since ads are presented side-by-side with news. However,
newspapers are generally thrown out after one day, often cannot print
in color, & have poor reproduction quality. Moreover newspapers don’t
usually allow advertisers to target their audience very well.
Television. Television accounts for about 22% of all advertising
expenditures. In addition to the major networks, cable television is
becoming a major advertising medium. Cable ad revenues have
increased from $58million in1980 to $1.4billion in1988, & are projected
to be over $2billion by1990.
Television allows advertisers to combine sight, sound, & motion,
thus appealing to almost all the viewer’s senses. National advertising is
done on television because it reaches more people than any other
medium.
One disadvantage of television is that there are too many
commercials, causing viewers to confuse products. Most people for
example, can’t recall whether a tire commercial was for Firestone, or
Goodrich. Viewers of VCR tapes of shows often fast-forward past the
ads. Another disadvantage, is that the normal «Commercial spot» lasts
only a short time(usually 30sec), & then its gone. If the viewer is not
paying attention, the impact of the commercial is lost. Brevity also
makes television a poor medium in which to educate viewers about
complex products. Finally television is the most expensive medium. A
30sec commercial during the Super Bowl costs about $750.000!
Direct Mail. Direct Mail advertisements account for 17% of all
advertising expenditures. As the name implies, direct mail often
involves fliers mailed directly to consumers’ homes or places of
business. Direct Mail allows the company to select its audience &
personalize the message. Consumers are also exposed to far less
direct mail than to other advertising media. Moreover, although direct
mail incurs the largest advance costs of any advertising technique, it
also appears to have the highest cost effectiveness. These features
have helped to make direct mail a fast-growing advertising medium.
Radio. About 7% of all advertising expenditures are for radio
time. A tremendous number of people listen to the radio each day, and
radio ads are very inexpensive. In addition, since most radio is
programmed locally, this medium gives advertisers a high degree of
customer selectivity. For example, radio stations are already
segmented into listening categories such as rock & roll, country &
western, jazz, talk shows, news & religious programming.
Like television however, radio ads are over quickly. And radio
permits only an audio presentation. Also people tend to use the radio
as a background while they’re
doing their things, paying little attention to the advertisements.
Magazines. Magazine advertising accounts for roughly 5% of
all advertising. The many different magazines on the market provide a
high level on consumer selectivity. Magazine advertising also allows for
excellent reproduction of photographs & artwork that not only grabs
buyer’s attention, but may also convince them on the product’s value.
And magazines allow advertisers plenty of space for detailed product
information Another advantage of magazines is that they have a long
life & tend to be passed from person to person, thus doubling & tripling
the number of exposures.
The problem with magazine advertising is that ads must be
submitted well in advance to be included in a certain issue. Often there
is no guarantee of where within a magazine in ad will appear. Naturally,
a company would prefer to have its advertisement appear near the
front of the magazine or within a feature article.
Outdoor. Outdoor advertising - billboards, signs, & advertising
buses, taxis, & subways - makes up a little more than 1 % of all
advertising. These advertisements are relatively inexpensive, they
face little competition for customers’ attention, & they are subject to
high repeat exposure. Unfortunately, companies have little control over
who will see their advertisement.
Types of Advertising
Regardless of the media used, advertisements fall into one of
several categories. Brand Advertising promotes a specific brand,
such as Kodak126 film, Head & shoulders shampoo, & Nike Air Jordan
basketball shoes. Advocacy Advertising promotes a particular
candidate or viewpoint, as in ads for political candidates at electon
time and antidrug commercials. Institutional Advertising promotes
a fir’s long-term image, as when AT&T assures customers that it is
``the right choice.
Advertising to Specific Markets’
Advertisements also differ in to whom they are directed. That is,
advertisement depend on the company’s target market. In consumer
markets, local stores usually sponsor retail advertising to encourage
consumers to visit the store & buy its products & services. Larger
retailers use retail advertising on both a local & national level. Often
retail advertising is actually cooperative advertising , with the cost
of the advertising shared by the retailer & the manufacturer.
In industrial markets, to communicate with companies that
distribute its products, some firms use trade advertising
publications. And to reach the professional purchasing agent &
managers at firm buying raw material or components, companies use
industrial advertising.
Regulation of Advertising
Advertising affects nearly every American. Because it can be
used to deceive as well as inform buyers, advertising has increasingly
come under regulation. The first regulation of advertising activities
came in1914. This act created the Federal Trade Commission to
protect competition from unfair trade practices.
Members of the advertising industry also regulate themselves
to some degree. Advertising media, including television networks &
local stations magazines, & newspapers, decline ads they believe to be
false or in poor test. And the National Advertising Review Board
investigates complaints against national advertisers. If it finds in favor
of the advertiser, chargers are dropped. If it finds in favor of the
complaining party, then the advertiser must modify or withdraw its
claim.
Personal Selling Promotions
Virtually everyone has engaged in some sort of sales activity.
Perhaps you had a lemonade stand or sold candy for the drama club.
Or you may have gone on a job interview - selling your abilities &
service as an employee to the interviewers company.
Personal selling - the oldest form of selling - is a vital cog in
many companies’ promotional efforts. It provides the personal link
between seller & buyer. It adds to a firm’s creditability because it
provides buyers with someone to interact with & to answer their
questions.
Because it involves personal interaction, however, personal
selling requires a level of trust between the buyer & the seller. When a
buyer fells cheated by the seller, that
trust has been broken & negative attitude towards salespeople
in general develops. To counteract this reputation, many companies
are emphasizing customer satisfaction & generally striving to improve
the effectiveness of whatever personal selling they undertake.
Personal selling is also most expensive form of promotion per
contact because presentations are generally made to one or two
individuals at time. Personal selling expenses include salespeople’s
compensation & their overhead, usually travel, food & lodging. The
average cost of sales call has been estimated an approximately $240
& has been increasing rapidly in recent years.
The high cost of personal sales have prompted many companies to set
up Telemarketing departments. Telemarketing is the use of the
telephone to carry out many of the activities involved in marketing a
company’s products. Telemarketing can be used to handle any stage of
the personal selling process or to set up appointments for outside sales
people.
Types of Personal Selling Situations
Managers of both telemarketing & traditional personal sales
people must always consider how personal service are affected by the
difference between consumer products & industrial products. Retail
selling involves selling a consumer product for the buyer’s own
personal or household use. Industrial selling deals with selling
products to other businesses, either for manufacturing other products
or for resale.
Each of this selling groups situations has its own distinct
characteristics. In retail selling the buyer usually comes to the seller.
The industrial salesperson almost always goes to the prospect’s place
of business. The industrial decision process also may take longer than
a retail decision because more money, decision makers, & weighting of
alternatives are involved. And industrial buyers are professional
purchasing agents who are accustomed to dealing with salespeople.
Consumers in retail stores, on the other hand, may be intimidated by
salespeople.
Personal Selling Tasks
Improving sales efficiency also requires marketers to consider
salespeople’s tasks. Three basic tasks are generally associated with
selling: Order processing, creative selling, & missionary selling. Sales
jobs usually require salespeople to perform all three tasks to some
degree, depending on the product & the company. As you will see, this
tasks differ in the skills required, the methods used, & the reasons for
using them.
Order Processing . At the most basic level, Order Processing,
a salesperson receives an order & sees to the handling & delivery of
that order. Route salespeople are often order processors. They call on
regular customers to check the customer’s supply of bread, milk, snack
foods, or soft drinks. Then, with a customer’s consent, they determine
the size of the reorder, fill the order form their trucks, & stack the
customer’s shelves.
Creative Selling. When the benefits of the product are not
clear, creative selling may persuade buyers. Most industrial products
involves creative selling because the buyer has not used the product
before or may not be familiar with the features & uses of
a specific brand. Personal selling is also crucial for high priced
consumer products, such as homes, where buyers comparison shop.
Any new product can benefit from creative selling that differentiates it
from other products. Finally, creative selling can help to create a need.
Missionary Selling. A company may also use missionary
selling to promote itself & its products. The goal of missionary selling is
to promote the company’s long-term image than to make a quick sale.
The Personal Selling Process
Although all three sales tasks are important to an organization
using personal selling, perhaps the most complicated is creative
selling. It is the creative salesperson who is responsible for most of the
steps in the personal selling process described here.
Prospecting & Qualifying. In order to sell, a sales person
must first have a potential customer, or prospect. Prospecting is the
process of identifying this potential customers. Salespeople find
prospects through past company records, customers , friends,
relatives, company personnel, & business associates. Prospects must
then be qualified to determine whether or not they have the authority
to buy & the ability to pay.
Approaching. The first few minutes that a salesperson has
contact with a qualified prospect are called the approach. The
success of later stages depends on the prospect’s first impression of
the salesperson, since this impression affects the salesperson’s
creditability. Thus, salespeople need to present a neat, professional
appearance & to greet prospects in a strong, confident manner.
Presenting & Demonstrating. Next, the salesperson must
present the
promotional message to the prospect. A presentation is the full
explanation of the
product, its features, & its uses. It links the product’s benefits to
the prospect’s needs. A presentation may or may not include a
demonstration of the product.
Handling Objections. No matter what the products, prospects
will have some objections . At the very least, prospects will object to
a product’s price, hoping to get a discount. Objections show the
salesperson that the buyer is interested in the presentation & which
parts of the presentation the buyer is insure of or has a problem with.
They tell the salesperson what customers feel is important &,
essentially, how to sell them.
Closing. The most critical part of the selling process is the
close, in which the
sales person asks the prospective customer to buy the product.
Successful salespeople, recognize the signs that a customer is ready to
buy. Salespeople can ask directly for the sale or they can indirectly
imply a close. Questions such as « Could you take delivery Tuesday?»
& « Why don’t we start you off with an initial order of ten cases?» are
implied closes. Such indirect closes place the burden of rejecting the
sale on the prospect, who often will find it hard to say no.
Following Up. The sales process doesn’t end with the close of
the sale. Most companies wants customers to come back again. Sales
follow-up activities include fast processing of the customer’s orders &
on-time delivery. Training in the proper care & usage of the product &
speedy service if repairs are needed may also be part of the fallow-up.
Sales Promotions
Sales promotions ( motivators) are a very important factor in
the promotional mix because they increase the chances that
consumers will try a product. They also enhance recognition for the
products. And they can increase the purchase size & amount.
Did you ever here a promotional slogan « buy three & get one free.»
To succeed, however, sales promotions must be convenient &
accessible when the decision to purchase occurs.
Types of Sales Promotions
Sales promotions can take a variety of forms. The best known
are coupons, point of purchase displays, free samples, trading stamps,
premiums, trade shows, trade promotions, & contests & sweepstakes.
Coupons. Any certificate that entitles the bearer to a stated
savings off a product’s regular price is a coupon. Coupons may be
used to encourage customers to try new products, to attract customers
away from competitors or to include current customers to buy more of
a product. They appear in newspapers & magazines & are often sent
through direct mail.
Point-of-Purchase Displays. To grab customer’s attention as
they walk through the store, some companies use Point of Purchase
Displays . Displays located at the end of the aisles or near the
checkout in supermarkets are POP displays. POP displays are always
coincide with a sale or the item being displayed. They also make it
easier for customers to find a product & easier for manufacturers to
eliminate competitors from
consideration. The cost of shelf & display space, however, is becoming
more & more expensive.
Free Samples, Trading Stamps, & Premiums. Purchasing
incentives such as free samples, trading stamps, & Premiums are used
by many manufacturers & retailers. Premiums are gifts, such as pens,
pencils, calendars, & coffee mugs, that are given away to consumers in
return for buying a specified product. Retailers & wholesalers also
receive premiums for carrying some products.
Trade Shows. Periodically, industries sponsor Trade Shows
for their members & customers. Trade shows allow companies to rent
booths to display & demonstrate their products to customers who have
a special interest in the products or who are ready to buy. Trade shows
are relatively inexpensive & are very effective, since the buyer comes
to the seller already interested in a given type of product.
Contests & Sweepstakes. Customers, distributors, & sales
representatives may all be persuaded to increase sales of a product
through the use of contest. For example, distributors & sales agents
may win a trip to Hawaii for selling the most pillows in the month of
March. Although sweepstakes can’t require consumers to buy a
product to enter, they may increase sales by stimulating buyers’
interest in a product.
Publicity & Public Relations Promotions
Much to the delight of marketing managers with tight budgets,
Publicity Is FREE. Moreover, consumers see publicity as objective &
highly believable. Thus, it is a very important part of the promotional
mix. However marketers often have a little control over publicity.
Public relations is company-influenced publicity. It attempts to
establish a sense of goodwill between the company & its customers
through public service announcements that enhance the company’s
image. From this topic, so far, you may think that only large companies
can afford to seriously promote their goods & services. Although small
businesses have fewer resources, cost-effective promotions can
improve sales & enable small firms to complete with a much larger
firms.
Small Business Advertising
The type of advertising chosen by a small business depends on
the market the
firm is trying to reach: Local, National, International.
Local Markets. Advertising is non prime-time slots on local
television offers great impact at a cost many small firms can afford.
More commonly though, small businesses with a local market use
newspaper & radio advertising &, increasingly, direct mail.
National Markets. Many businesses have grown from small to
large operations by using direct mail & particularly catalogues. By
purchasing mailing lists of other companies’ customers, a small firm
can target its mailing, reducing costs. The ability to target an audience
also makes specialized magazines attractive to small businesses.
International Markets. Television, radio, & newspapers are
seldom viable promotional options in reaching international markets
because of both their costs and their limited availability. Most small
firms find direct mail & magazine advertising the most effective
promotional tools.
Like advertising, personal selling strategies used by small
businesses depend on their intended market.
Local Markets. Some small firms maintain a sales force to
promote & sell their products locally. Other contract with a sales
agency - a company that handles the products of several companies -
to act on their behalf. Insurance agents who sell insurance for several
different companies are sales agencies.
National Markets . Because of a high costs of operating a
national sales force,
many companies have established telemarketing staffs. By
combining telemarketing with a catalog or other educational product
literature, small companies can sell their products nationally &
compete against much larger companies.
International Markets. Small companies can’t afford to
establish international offices in order to conduct businesses. Even
sending sales representatives overseas is expensive. Thus, many small
companies have combined telemarketing with direct mail in order to
expand internationally. Small businesses often depend on an
interesting or unusual sign to attract new customers.
Small Business Sales Promotions
Small companies use the same sales promotion incentives that
larger companies use. The difference is that larger firms tend to use
more coupons, POP displays, & sales contests. Smaller firms rely on
premiums & special sales, since coupons & sales contests are more
expensive & difficult to manage.
Small Business Publicity
Publicity is very important to small businesses with local
markets. Small firms often have an easier time getting local publicity
than do national firms. Readers of local papers like to read about local
companies, so local papers like to write about such businesses. But
fierce competition for coverage in national & international publications
limits the access small businesses have to those markets.
Distributing Goods & Services
In selecting a distribution mix for getting its products to
customers, a firm may use any or all of six distribution channels. The
first four are aimed at consumers & the last two at industrial
customers. Channel 1 involves a direct sale to the consumer. Channel
2 includes a retailer. Channel 3 also includes one wholesaler, while
Channel 4 includes an agent or broker before the wholesaler.
Distribution strategies include intensive, exclusive, & selective
distribution.
Wholesalers act as distribution intermediaries, extending credit
& storing, repackaging, & delivering the product to other members of
the distribution channel. Full-service, & limited-service, merchant
wholesalers differ in the number of distribution functions they offer.
Agents & brokers never take legal possession of the product.
Retailing involves direct interaction with the final consumer. The
major types of retail stores are department, specialty, bargain,
convenience, supermarkets, & hypermarkets. (Like in Moscow.) They
differ in terms of size, services, & product type they offer, & product
pricing. Some retailing also takes place without stores, through the use
of catalogs, vending machines, & video marketing. According to the
wheel of retailing, conventional retailers are periodically Displaced by
low-priced innovative retailers, who then become more conventional &
subject to displacement.
Distribution ultimately depends on physically getting the
product to the buyer. Physical distribution includes customer-service
operations such as order processing. It also includes warehousing &
transportation of products. Warehouses may be public or private &
may be used for long-term storage or serve as distribution centers.
Costs of warehousing include inventory control & materials handling.
Truck, plane, railroad, water, & pipeline transportation differ in
cost, availability, reliability of delivery, & speed. Air is the fastest but
most expensive. Water carriers are the slowest, but least expensive.
Most products are moved by truck at some point. Transportation in any
form may be supplied by common carriers, freight forwarders, contract
carriers, or private carriers.
Developing & Pricing Products
Products are a firm’s reason for being, their features offer
benefits to buyers, whose purchases are the source of business profits.
In developing products, marketers must take into account whether
their market is individual consumers or other firms. Marketers must
also recognize that buyers will pay less for & worry less about the
exact nature of convenience goods than about shopping & specialty
goods. In industrial markets, expensive items are generally less
expensive & more rapidly consumed than are capital items.
The seven stages of product development are development the
ideas, screening, concept testing, business analysis, prototype
development, test marketing, & commercialization. Very few ideas for
new products survive to the commercialization stage.
When new products are launched, they have a life cycle that
begins with their introduction & progresses through stages of growth,
maturity, & decline Revenues rise through the early growth period;
sales rise through the late maturity period. In terms of the growth -
share matrix, this progression appears as a product moves from
questions mark to star to cash cow to dog.
Each product is given a visible identity by its brand & the way it
is packaged & labeled. National, licensed & private brands are
developed to create brand loyalty. Packaging provides an attractive
container & advertises the product. The label informs the consumer of
the package contents. The pricing of the product will determine its
business success, depending on the business objectives that are being
sought. Profit maximization, market share, & other business objectives
may be relevant to the pricing decision. Economic theory, cost-oriented
pricing, & break-even analysis are tan used as tools in determine
prices.
Pricing also involves choices of a basic pricing strategy can be
used for new products. Existing products may be priced at, above, or
below prevailing prices for similar products, depending on the other
elements in the marketing mix. Within a firm’s pricing strategies,
managers set prices using tactics such as price lining, psychological
pricing, & discounting.
Promotional Objectives, Strategies, & Tools
Promotional Objectives
Promotional Strategies
Picking the Right Tools for the Promotional Mix
Advertising Promotions
Advertising Strategies
Advertising Media
Types Advertising
Advertising to Specific Markets
Regulation of Advertising
Personal Selling Promotions
Types of Personal Selling Situations
Personal Selling Tasks
The Personal Selling Process
Sales Promotions
Types of Sales Promotions
Publicity & Public Relations Promotions
Small-Business Advertising
Small-Business Personal Selling
Small-Business Sales Promotions
Small-Business Publicity
Distributing Goods & Services
Developing & Pricing Products
MANAGING MARKETING
(Promoting Goods & Services)
To Dr. Zavadovskiy
by Goubanova Galina
Principles of Marketing Philip Kotler
Gary Armstrong
2.The practice of Marketing Kenneth E. Runyon
Business Ricky W. Griffin
Marketing Patrick E. Murphy
Ben M. Enis
Marketing Management ( A Strategic Approach)
Harper W. Boyd, Jr
Orville C. Walker,Jr
Маркетинг реферат по маркетингу на английском языке - Docsity
Реферат : Marketing Referance Essay Research Paper IntroductionThe marketing
Маркетинг как наука. Реферат . Английский . 2006-08-31
Тема Маркетинг на английском языке – Онлайн Курс Английского Языка
2 Text 1. What is Marketing ?
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