Lysergic acid diethylamide

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Lysergic acid diethylamide , abbreviated LSD or LSD , also known as lysergide and colloquially as acid , is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family, well known for its psychological effects which can include altered thinking processes, closed and open eye visuals, synaesthesia, an altered sense of time and spiritual experiences , as well as for its key role in s counterculture. It is used mainly as an entheogen , recreational drug , and as an agent in psychedelic therapy. LSD is non-addictive, is not known to cause brain damage, and has extremely low toxicity relative to dose , although in rare cases adverse psychiatric reactions such as anxiety or delusions are possible. LSD was first synthesized by Albert Hofmann in from ergotamine , a chemical derived by Arthur Stoll from ergot , a grain fungus that typically grows on rye. In pure form it is a colorless, odorless, and mildly bitter solid. In its liquid form, it can also be administered by intramuscular or intravenous injection. Introduced by Sandoz Laboratories, with trade-name Delysid , as a drug with various psychiatric uses in , LSD quickly became a therapeutic agent that appeared to show great promise. The subsequent recreational use of the drug by youth culture in the Western world during the s led to a political firestorm that resulted in its prohibition. LSD can cause pupil dilation , reduced appetite for some, it increases , and wakefulness. Other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and nonspecific, and some of these reactions may be secondary to the psychological effects of LSD. The following symptoms have been reported: Some users, including Albert Hofmann, report a strong metallic taste for the duration of the effects. LSD is not considered addictive by the medical community. They also vary from one trip to another, and even as time passes during a single trip. An LSD trip can have long-term psychoemotional effects; some users cite the LSD experience as causing significant changes in their personality and life perspective. If the user is in a hostile or otherwise unsettling environment, or is not mentally prepared for the powerful distortions in perception and thought that the drug causes, effects are more likely to be unpleasant than if he or she is in a comfortable environment and has a relaxed, balanced and open mindset. LSD causes expansion and an altered experience of senses , emotions , memories , time , and awareness for 6 to 14 hours, depending on dosage and tolerance. Generally beginning within thirty to ninety minutes after ingestion, the user may experience anything from subtle changes in perception to overwhelming cognitive shifts. Changes in auditory and visual perception are typical. Users commonly report that the inanimate world appears to animate in an unexplainable way; for instance, objects that are static in three dimensions can seem to be moving relative to one or more additional spatial dimensions. The auditory effects of LSD may include echo -like distortions of sounds, changes in ability to discern concurrent auditory stimuli, and a general intensification of the experience of music. Higher doses often cause intense and fundamental distortions of sensory perception such as synaesthesia, the experience of additional spatial or temporal dimensions, and temporary dissociation. LSD has been used in psychiatry for its perceived therapeutic value, in the treatment of alcoholism, pain and cluster headache relief, for spiritual purposes, and to enhance creativity. In the s and s LSD was used in psychiatry to enhance psychotherapy. Some psychiatrists believed LSD was especially useful at helping patients to 'unblock' repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods, \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 21 \\\\\\\\\\\\\] and also for treating alcoholism. In December , a survey was made of all 74 UK doctors who had used LSD in humans; 73 replied, 1 had moved overseas and was unavailable. From there has been ongoing research in Switzerland into using LSD to alleviate anxiety for terminally ill cancer patients coping with their impending deaths. Preliminary results from the study are promising, and no negative effects have been reported. LSD was studied in the s by Eric Kast as an analgesic for serious and chronic pain caused by cancer or other major trauma. Kast attributed this effect to a decrease in anxiety; that is to say they were not experiencing less pain, but rather being less distressed by pain. This reported effect is being tested though not using LSD in an ongoing as of study of the effects of the psychedelic tryptamine psilocybin on anxiety in terminal cancer patients. LSD has been used as a treatment for cluster headaches , an uncommon but extremely painful disorder. Researcher Peter Goadsby describes the headaches as 'worse than natural childbirth or even amputation without anesthetic. A dose-response study testing the effectiveness of both LSD and psilocybin was planned at McLean Hospital , although the current status of this project is unclear. A study by McLean researchers interviewed 53 cluster-headache sufferers who treated themselves with either LSD or psilocybin, finding that a majority of the users of either drug reported beneficial effects. LSD is considered an entheogen because it can catalyze intense spiritual experiences, during which users may feel they have come into contact with a greater spiritual or cosmic order. Users claim to experience lucid sensations where they have 'out of body' experiences. Some users report insights into the way the mind works, and some experience permanent shifts in their life perspective. LSD also allows users to view their life from an introspected point of view. From this point of view, a user can travel back in time to a specific moment or memory and relive that moment again. Some users consider LSD a religious sacrament, or a powerful tool for access to the divine. Stanislav Grof has written that religious and mystical experiences observed during LSD sessions appear to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from similar descriptions in the sacred scriptures of the great religions of the world and the secret mystical texts of ancient civilizations. In the s and s, psychiatrists like Oscar Janiger explored the potential effect of LSD on creativity. Experimental studies attempted to measure the effect of LSD on creative activity and aesthetic appreciation. Although there have been no documented human deaths from an LSD overdose, \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 42 \\\\\\\\\\\\\] LSD may temporarily impair the ability to make sensible judgments and understand common dangers, thus making the user more susceptible to accidents and personal injury. It may cause temporary confusion, difficulty with abstract thinking, or signs of impaired memory and attention span that would be consistent with brain damage. There is some indication that LSD may trigger a dissociative fugue state in individuals who are taking certain classes of antidepressants such as lithium salts and tricyclics. In such a state, the user has an impulse to wander, and may not be aware of his or her actions, which can lead to physical injury. Anonymous anecdotal reports have attributed seizures and one death to the combination of LSD with lithium. LSD may trigger panic attacks or feelings of extreme anxiety, colloquially referred to as a ' bad trip '. While publicly available documents indicate that the CIA and Department Of Defense have discontinued research into the use of LSD as a means of mind control, \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 48 \\\\\\\\\\\\\] research from the s suggests there exists evidence that both mentally ill and healthy people are more suggestible while under its influence. It is difficult to determine whether LSD itself induces these reactions or if it triggers latent conditions that would have manifested themselves otherwise. The similarities of time course and outcomes between putatively LSD-precipitated and other psychoses suggest that the two types of syndromes are not different and that LSD may have been a nonspecific trigger. Estimates of the prevalence of LSD-induced prolonged psychosis lasting over 48 hours have been made by surveying researchers and therapists who had administered LSD:. However, in neither survey study was it possible to compare the rate of lasting psychosis in these volunteers and patients receiving LSD with the rate of psychosis found in other groups of research volunteers or in other methods of psychiatric treatment for example, those receiving placebo. In some rarer cases, flashbacks have lasted longer, but are generally short-lived and mild compared to the actual LSD 'trip'. Flashbacks can incorporate both positive and negative aspects of LSD trips, and are typically elicited by triggers such as alcohol or cannabis use, stress, caffeine, or sleepiness. Flashbacks have proven difficult to study and are no longer officially recognized as a psychiatric syndrome. However, colloquial usage of the term persists and usually refers to any drug-free experience reminiscent of psychedelic drug effects, with the typical connotation that the episodes are of short duration. No definitive explanation is currently available for these experiences. Any attempt at explanation must reflect several observations: Although flashbacks themselves are not recognized as a medical syndrome, there is a recognized syndrome called Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder HPPD in which LSD-like visual changes are not temporary and brief, as they are in flash-backs, but instead are persistent, and cause clinically significant impairment or distress. Several scientific journal articles have described the disorder. HPPD differs from flashbacks in that it is persistent and apparently entirely visual although mood and anxiety disorders are sometimes diagnosed in the same individuals. There is no consensus regarding the nature and causes of HPPD or flashbacks. There are no explanations for why only some individuals develop HPPD. Explanations in terms of LSD physically remaining in the body for months or years after consumption have been discounted by experimental evidence. Many emotionally intense experiences can lead to flashbacks when a person is reminded acutely of the original experience. However, not all published case reports of HPPD appear to describe an anxious hyper-vigilant state reminiscent of post-traumatic stress disorder. Instead, some cases appear to involve only visual symptoms. Early pharmacological testing by Sandoz in laboratory animals showed that LSD can stimulate uterine contractions, with efficacy comparable to ergobasine , the active uterotonic component of the ergot fungus. Therefore, LSD use by pregnant women could be dangerous and is contraindicated. Beginning in , studies raised concerns that LSD might produce genetic damage \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 61 \\\\\\\\\\\\\] or developmental abnormalities in fetuses. However, these initial reports were based on in vitro studies or were poorly controlled and have not been substantiated. In studies of chromosomal changes in human users and in monkeys, the balance of evidence suggests no increase in chromosomal damage. For example, white blood cells of people who had been given LSD in a clinical setting were examined for visible chromosomal abnormalities; overall, there appeared to be no lasting changes. Interpretation of these data is generally complicated by factors such as the unknown chemical composition of street LSD, concurrent use of other psychoactive drugs , and diseases such as hepatitis in the sampled populations. It seems possible the small number of genetic abnormalities reported in users of street LSD is either coincidental or related to factors other than a toxic effect of pure LSD. Adverse effects of psychotropics are often treated with fast-acting benzodiazepines like diazepam or triazolam that have calming and antianxiety effects but do not directly affect the specific actions of psychotropics. Theoretically, specific 5-HT 2A receptor antagonists , which most commonly means atypical antipsychotics quetiapine , olanzapine , risperidone , etc. As the effect of the drug is psychological as well as physical, any treatment should focus on calming the patient. Limiting stimuli such as bright lights and loud noises can help in the event of an ill reaction. Many rumors about home remedies to counteract psychedelic effects are circulated, including vanilla essence, and anti-histamines. These may have a placebo effect, working by making the taker think they have done something to make it better. LSD is an ergoline derivative. It is commonly synthesised by reacting diethylamine with an activated form of lysergic acid. Activating reagents include phosphoryl chloride \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 66 \\\\\\\\\\\\\] and peptide coupling reagents. LSD is a chiral compound with two stereocenters at the carbon atoms C-5 and C-8, so that theoretically four different optical isomers of LSD could exist. The C-5 isomers of lysergamides do not exist in nature and are not formed during the synthesis from D -lysergic acid. Retrosynthetically, the C-5 stereocenter could be analysed as having the same configuration of the alpha carbon of the naturally occurring amino acid L- tryptophan , the precursor to all biosynthetic ergoline compounds. However, LSD and iso-LSD, the two C-8 isomers, rapidly interconvert in the presence of bases , as the alpha proton is acidic and can be deprotonated and reprotonated. Non-psychoactive iso-LSD which has formed during the synthesis can be separated by chromatography and can be isomerized to LSD. A totally pure salt of LSD will emit small flashes of white light when shaken in the dark. LSD has two labile protons at the tertiary stereogenic C5 and C8 positions, rendering these centres prone to epimerisation. The C8 proton is more labile due to the electron-withdrawing carboxamide attachment, but removal of the chiral proton at the C5 position which was once also an alpha proton of the parent molecule tryptophan is assisted by the inductively-withdrawing nitrogen and pi electron delocalisation with the indole ring. LSD also has enamine -type reactivity because of the electron-donating effects of the indole ring. Because of this, chlorine destroys LSD molecules on contact; even though chlorinated tap water contains only a slight amount of chlorine, the small quantity of compound typical to an LSD solution will likely be eliminated when dissolved in tap water. LSD often converts to 'lumi-LSD', which is totally inactive in human beings to the best of current knowledge. A controlled study was undertaken to determine the stability of LSD in pooled urine samples. Urine fortified with LSD and stored in amber glass or nontransparent polyethylene containers showed no change in concentration under any light conditions. Stability of LSD in transparent containers under light was dependent on the distance between the light source and the samples, the wavelength of light, exposure time, and the intensity of light. It was also demonstrated that trace amounts of metal ions in buffer or urine could catalyze the decomposition of LSD and that this process can be avoided by the addition of EDTA. A single dose of LSD may be between and micrograms—an amount roughly equal to one-tenth the mass of a grain of sand. Threshold effects can be felt with as little as 25 micrograms of LSD. By comparison, dosages of most drugs, both recreational and medicinal, are measured in milligrams mg , or thousandths of a gram. For example, an active dose of mescaline , roughly 0. Aghajanian and Bing found LSD had an elimination half-life of only minutes. LSD may be quantified in urine as part of a drug abuse testing program, in plasma or serum to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims or in whole blood to assist in a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or a case of sudden death. Both the parent drug and its major metabolite are unstable in biofluids when exposed to light, heat or alkaline conditions and therefore specimens are protected from light, stored at the lowest possible temperature and analyzed quickly to minimize losses. LSD affects a large number of the G protein coupled receptors , including all dopamine receptor subtypes, and all adrenoreceptor subtypes, as well as many others. LSD was first synthesized on November 16, \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 82 \\\\\\\\\\\\\] by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at the Sandoz Laboratories in Basel , Switzerland as part of a large research program searching for medically useful ergot alkaloid derivatives. He said, this would be a threshold dose based on the dosages of other ergot alkaloids. Hofmann found the effects to be much stronger than he anticipated. The project was revealed in the US congressional Rockefeller Commission report in In the Sandoz patents expired on LSD. LSD became central to the counterculture of the s. Legally approved and regulated psychiatric use of LSD continued in Switzerland until Because an active dose of LSD is very minute, a large number of doses can be synthesized from a comparatively small amount of raw material. Beginning with ergotamine tartrate , for example, one can manufacture roughly one kilogram of pure, crystalline LSD from five kilograms of the ergotamine salt. Five kilograms of LSD—25 kilograms of ergotamine tartrate—could provide million doses, according to the DEA, more than enough to meet what is believed to be the entire annual U. Since the masses involved are so small, concealing and transporting illicit LSD is much easier than smuggling other illegal drugs like cocaine or cannabis. Manufacturing LSD requires laboratory equipment and experience in the field of organic chemistry. It is believed that LSD is not usually produced in large quantities, but rather in a series of small batches. This technique minimizes the loss of precursor chemicals in case a step does not work as expected. LSD is produced in crystalline form and then mixed with excipients or redissolved for production in ingestible forms. Liquid solution is either distributed in small vials or, more commonly, sprayed onto or soaked into a distribution medium. Historically, LSD solutions were first sold on sugar cubes, but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form. Tim Scully, a prominent chemist, made some of it, but said that most 'Sunshine' in the USA came by way of Ronald Stark, who imported approximately thirty-five million doses from Europe. Over a period of time, tablet dimensions, weight, shape and concentration of LSD evolved from large 4. LSD tablet shapes have included cylinders, cones, stars, spacecraft and heart shapes. The smallest tablets became known as 'Microdots'. LSD manufacturers and traffickers in the United States can be categorized into two groups: A few large-scale producers, and an equally limited number of small, clandestine chemists, consisting of independent producers who, operating on a comparatively limited scale, can be found throughout the country \\\\\\\\\\\\\[ 97 \\\\\\\\\\\\\] As a group, independent producers are of less concern to the Drug Enforcement Administration than the larger groups, as their product reaches only local markets. While it is true that LSD requires lower doses than most other hallucinogens, blotter paper is capable of absorbing a much larger amount of material. The DEA performed a chromatographic analysis of blotter paper containing 2C-C which showed that the paper contained a much greater concentration of the active chemical than typical LSD doses, although the exact quantity was not determined. Hence, it is illegal in all parties to the convention, which includes the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and most of Europe. However, enforcement of extant laws varies from country to country. Possession for purpose of trafficking is an indictable offense punishable by imprisonment for 10 years. Blueprint for Regulation , which details options for regulated distribution and sale of LSD and other psychedelics. There are no documented deaths from chemical toxicity; most LSD deaths are a result of behavioral toxicity. There can also be substantial discrepancies between the amount of chemical LSD that one possesses and the amount of possession with which one can be charged in the U. This is because LSD is almost always present in a medium e. Ergotamine tartrate, a precursor to lysergic acid, is regulated under the Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act. Some notable individuals have commented publicly on their experiences with LSD. Still others describe experiences with illegal LSD, obtained for philosophic, artistic, therapeutic, spiritual, or recreational purposes. It was formerly used to aid treatment of psychological disorders. Side effects include digestive upsets, dizziness, tingling, anxiety, sweating, dilated pupils, muscle incoordination and tremor. Мы используем куки для наилучшего представления нашего сайта. Продолжая использовать данный сайт, вы соглашаетесь с этим. Lysergic acid diethylamide 'LSD' redirects here. For other uses, see LSD disambiguation. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 5: Journal of Analytical Toxicology 14 3: Royal Society of Chemistry. The Good Drugs Guide. J Abnorm Psychol 73 1: The therapeutic potential of LSD A Pharmacologic Approach to the Study of the Mind, p— Br J Psychiatry New York, , pp. LSD, malvaria, and nicotinic acid,' pp. J Psychoactive Drugs 30 4: J Psychopharmacol 22 8: J Psychoactive Drugs 21 1: LSD, the problem-solving psychedelic. Arch Gen Psychiat 17 5: December 8, John D. Rockefeller IV, West Virginia. A review of the literature'. J Nerv Ment Dis Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1: Military Medicine 1: Journal of Abnormal Psychology 86 4: Drug Alcohol Depend 69 2: Curr Psychiatry Rep 5 5: Psychiatry Research 67 3: Drugs in pregnancy and lactation. Ein neues, in sehr kleinen Mengen wirsames Phantastikum. Still with us after all these years. A Suspected Cause of Death'. Journal of the Kentucky Medical Association. CNS and neurological disorders 3 1: AAPS Journal 07 2: LSD in the United States. Department of Justice Drug Enforcement Administration. Archived from the original on Psychedelics Encyclopaedia Third Expanded ed. A Forensic Drug Handbook. Drugs and the Drug Trade'. Office of National Drug Control Policy. US Drug Enforcement Administration. Microgram Bulletin 38 Microgram Bulletin 39 Microgram Bulletin 40 2. Microgram Bulletin 40 Microgram Bulletin 41 3. Microgram Bulletin 42 3. Canadian Department of Justice. Report of the inquiry into the Misuse of Drugs Act London: United States , U. Retrieved 23 October Retrieved 1 November Bebergal, Peter, 'Will Harvard drop acid again? April 10, Lee, Martin A. The Search for the Manchurian Candidate: Based on the results of one of the longest clinical studies of LSD that took place between and , before LSD was illegal. Includes personal reports, artwork, and poetry from the original sessions as testimony of the impact of LSD on the creative process. Cannabinoids CB 1 R agonists. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors SSRIs: Look at other dictionaries: Dictionaries export , created on PHP,. Mark and share Search through all dictionaries Translate… Search Internet. Oral , Intravenous, Ocular , Intramuscular. Contents 1 Effects 1. Drug policy by country. Psychedelics 5-HT 2A R agonists. D 2 R agonists.

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