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Le Mans buying weed

These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. Key findings and threat assessment. Global context. Trafficking and supply. Retail markets. Criminal networks. Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness. The affordability of drugs is a measure that incorporates drug purity or potency and accounts for differing national economic conditions, as quantified in the price level indices see Groshkova et al. Using affordability as a measure allows a more sophisticated comparison of retail drug markets across countries and over time. Source: The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page. Meanwhile the retail price of resin products has, on average, remained stable during the same year period. Several developments already raised in this report have likely contributed to the increase in resin potency. These include the introduction of new cannabis strains and new cultivation and resin extraction techniques in Morocco see Section Cannabis resin production outside the EU. In addition, it is also possible that the amount of high-potency cannabis resin produced in Europe is increasing. These recent trends seem to confirm a finding reported in the previous edition of this report EMCDDA and Europol, , namely that cannabis resin may have become a more attractive product to some consumers in the EU, especially for those who seek high-potency cannabis products. Data on the prevalence of cannabis use, expressed in estimated numbers of users during the last year, may be viewed as an indicator of the location and approximate size of retail markets. Historically, cannabis has been the most used illicit drug in Europe, with currently around 84 million adults in the European Union aged , or As is the case with other drugs, the majority of cannabis users in Europe are males, who on average are twice as likely to report use as females. Overall, the prevalence of cannabis use in Europe appears to have remained stable over the past decade, although prevalence of use has increased in some of the countries that already had the highest rates of use, such as Croatia, Czechia, the Netherlands and Spain. Recent trends based on data from 15 countries that have conducted surveys on last-year cannabis use since indicate that levels of use have increased in four countries, remained stable in six countries and decreased in five countries. However, it appears to have affected patterns of use, with more frequent herbal cannabis users consuming more and infrequent users consuming less, on average. This trend was less marked for cannabis resin see Section How cannabis products are retailed in Europe. The most recent data available on last-year use indicate that the largest retail markets for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin continue to be located in western and southern Europe. Young adults make up the majority of last-year cannabis users in Europe, representing an estimated Germany and Spain follow, with 3. In terms of estimated total numbers of cannabis users, Czechia and Poland appear to be the largest retail markets in the Eastern part of the EU, with an estimated 0. It is estimated that around 3. Cannabis prevalence data do not discriminate between the different products used. These proportions are indicative as the EWSD is not representative of the entire European population. In wastewater analysis, cannabis use is estimated by measuring its main metabolite, THC-COOH, which is the only suitable biomarker found so far, although it is excreted in low percentages Causanilles et al. There are several challenges and uncertainties in the wastewater analysis of THC-COOH, related to factors such as the analytical measurements and poorly understood excretion rates Bijlsma et al. In addition, this type of analysis is not able to discriminate between the different cannabis products consumed. Overall, research to develop alternative biomarkers is needed and caution is required when interpreting trends based on THC-COOH loads in wastewater. A stable or decreasing trend in the THC-COOH loads was observed for almost all of the 23 cities with available data for the period. In countries with multiple study locations, no marked differences were found in the THC-COOH loads when comparing large and small cities. Wastewater analysis can also detect fluctuations in patterns of illicit drug use across the week. In summary, the wastewater data indicate that, unlike the use of other drugs, such as cocaine EMCDDA, a , the European cannabis market is relatively stable overall since THC-COOH is present in both large and small urban areas and evidence of use is distributed evenly over the week. A further data source pointing to overall stability in the cannabis market is that of treatment demand for cannabis use problems. Based on the data available from 25 countries, the numbers entering specialised drug treatment for cannabis problems in Europe remained stable between and On average, clients entered treatment for cannabis problems every year during those four years. Similarly, an average of 58 people a year entered treatment for the first time in their lives during that period, with a 1. However, the number of treatment entrants declined noticeably in This is indicative of how the COVID pandemic affected treatment provision and demand as well as the monitoring of these services across Europe. While the numbers entering treatment increased slightly in , they still remained below the levels. The lack of rebound in treatment entries for cannabis problems in to pre-pandemic levels may be related to several factors. As a consequence, help-seeking and the ability to access services remained subdued. In addition, services continued to operate within strict infection prevention conditions, which reduced treatment capacity and intake. The data available may also mask a greater use of tele-medicine during this period, which was not captured by the treatment demand indicator. Finally, there may have also been a natural reduction in treatment demand due to reduced use of cannabis during the pandemic among some groups. Note: Trends in first-time entrants are based on data from 25 countries. Only countries with data for at least five of the six years are included in the trends analysis. Missing values are interpolated from adjacent years. Because of disruptions to services due to COVID, data for and should be interpreted with caution. Missing data were imputed from values for the previous year for Spain and France and Germany Since the total number of herbal cannabis seizures in Europe has exceeded those involving resin, and this continued to be the case in This appears to confirm that herbal cannabis is more widely consumed than cannabis resin in Europe. The majority of seizures of the two main cannabis products reported in Europe, namely herbal cannabis and cannabis resin, are probably confiscated on retail markets since they involve amounts of grams or less. In a context of consistently high drug availability at the retail level, a finite, but constant, level of law enforcement resources deployed to police illicit cannabis markets has likely influenced the relative stability in numbers of seizures. It is therefore probable that if more, or less, law enforcement resources were available to police these retail markets, seizure trends would vary commensurately. Both of these figures are underestimates since no data are available for from countries that usually report large numbers of seizures, such as France and Germany. By comparison, the total number of cocaine seizures, the second largest drug market in Europe, was estimated at 71 in Europe that same year. These countries thus have a substantial impact on overall seizure trends in Europe. Some of the overall reduction in cannabis seizures may be due to fewer police resources being focused on enforcing drug laws at the retail level in , as officers were mobilised to enforce COVID restrictions. In addition, prolonged lockdown periods likely drove many cannabis users and dealers out of public spaces. Although the use of herbal cannabis is fairly long-standing in these countries, the comparatively low prevalence of use in most countries and their generally smaller population sizes result in retail markets that are much smaller than those in the relatively more affluent and populated western and northern parts of Europe see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in 11 eastern EU countries, Trends in numbers of seizures of cannabis resin and herb in these 11 central and eastern European countries present a somewhat different picture from the rest of Europe, characterised by less stability and an overall increase for both products, at least until A similar pattern can be observed in Europe as a whole. However, in the case of cannabis resin seizures, the pattern in the east of the EU differs markedly from the overall European picture, which shows numbers of resin seizures having risen back to nearly pre-pandemic levels in Overall, these trends seem to indicate that cannabis retail markets in the eastern part of the EU are growing, unlike those in most of the rest of Europe. However, the impact of COVID in eastern Europe, particularly on resin, seems to be stronger and longer lasting than in the rest of the continent see Figure Indexed trends in number of seizures of cannabis resin and herbal cannabis in 11 eastern EU countries, Cannabis oil has long been a marginal product on European consumer markets, with the total number of European seizures rarely reaching more than per year since reporting began in These five countries may therefore be viewed as emerging retail markets for cannabis oil in Europe, although several other countries with high prevalence of cannabis use do not report seizures of oil. These findings, together with an increase in the quantity of oil seized see Section Cannabis trafficking and supply: record quantities seized in , could indicate that cannabis oil is slowly gaining popularity among some European consumers. Some of the comparatively newer cannabis consumer products, such as butane hash oil BHO , rosin or cannabis wax, that have become available in Europe in recent years see Figure Cannabis: taxonomy of products traditional and modern are probably manufactured by consumers themselves from their own cannabis crops or from herbal or resin material purchased from dealers. However, some of these products may also be the result of commercial manufacturing in Europe and elsewhere. For instance, there have been seizures of such products at European postal hubs and airports, in parcels and on flights from Canada and the United States. Some of these products have also been seized in the United States on their way to Europe. These seizures usually involve small amounts, weighing a few hundred grams or less, although larger quantities are seized occasionally. For instance, in , a total of almost 58 kilograms of cannabis wax from the United States was seized in Germany. In , some 4. Other products such as edibles and e-cigarette liquids appear to have emerged in Europe more recently. They tend to be manufactured more professionally, often in third countries. The development of novel cannabis consumer products has been particularly dynamic and fast-paced in countries where cannabis has been regulated for recreational use, especially Canada and some parts of the United States. A broad range of products containing semi-synthetic cannabinoids, such as HHC, are available from online shops in some EU countries. Cannabis edibles are foods that are infused with cannabinoids Barrus et al. They can mimic popular brands of foods, particularly sweets and other snack products see Photo Examples of edibles containing THC seized in Sweden in and Box Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises. Commercial edibles appear to have become increasingly popular in some North American jurisdictions following cannabis policy changes. While they are usually subject to strict regulations aimed at reducing the potential harms and risks associated with their use, counterfeit, unlicensed and illegal cannabis edibles have nevertheless appeared on North American cannabis markets Health Canada, They are sold on darknet markets, through social media see Section Online distribution of cannabis products and at street level. Of particular concern are recent German federal police reports indicating an increase in the availability of THC-infused edibles, some of which are sold in packages mimicking branded sweets see Boxes Edibles: increased risks of poisoning and Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises. Based on the data currently available, it is difficult to estimate the size of the European market for cannabis edibles, or their manufacturing locations and trafficking routes. In particular, North America appears to be an important source. E-liquids liquids used in electronic vaping devices containing concentrates of phytocannabinoids, semi-synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids appear to have become available and increasingly popular among European consumers over the past few years. Included in this category are products containing synthetic cannabinoids mis-sold as containing THC or CBD, which can pose a high risk of poisoning because of their high potency EMCDDA, b, c see Box e-Liquids containing synthetic cannabinoids detected in France. Similar to many other recently emerging cannabis consumer products, cannabis e-liquids and associated products were initially developed in North America, where they are now widely available and popular, particularly among young people Lim et al. In the United States, in the summer of , there was an outbreak of e-cigarette or vaping use-associated lung injury EVALI related to counterfeit products containing deltaTHC, most probably due to contamination with vitamin E acetate. This outbreak resulted in the deaths of at least 68 people and thousands of hospitalisations across the country CDC, ; Duffy et al. However, insufficient information is available to adequately assess the potential toxicity of newer products containing semi-synthetic cannabinoids Meehan-Atrash and Rahman, Most of these appear to have been smuggled in from North America see Box Seizures of cannabis liquids and oils destined for Europe. Cannabis is bought, sold and traded in a variety of ways across Europe using both offline and online methods. Offline methods include the use of dealers in open, semi-open and closed settings. Open markets can be street-based markets May and Hough, ; Skliamis and Korf, while semi-open markets are often located in clubs and other quasi-private settings Tzanetakis, In closed markets business is conducted on a trust basis Potter, Online methods include purchases facilitated via the surface web, social media channels and the darknet. These could be considered semi-open settings, whereby no established relationship is usually required, but buyers have to subscribe or register with channels and platforms to gain access. In online methods, monetary transactions and deliveries may take place without any face-to-face contact, as is especially the case with purchases over the darknet. Sometimes, however, online methods simply facilitate the contact between buyers and sellers, for example via social media, and the exchange of money and drugs might still take place in person Mounteney et al. Evidence indicates that cannabis is relatively frequently shared within peer groups, sometimes without any monetary exchange or in a non-commercial or non-profit manner. This also extends to cannabis resin. Similarly, a study among cannabis coffeeshop visitors in Amsterdam from seven different European countries 4 , investigating how participants usually acquired cannabis in their home countries, found that, in the past 12 months, While the social supply of cannabis seems to be relatively prevalent in the EU, research indicates that the sources from which users acquire their cannabis vary between countries. However, the proportion of participants who reported buying from friends and street dealers differed greatly between the seven countries included in the study. Twenty-one EU countries and Switzerland. The source data for this graphic is available in the source table on this page. Smaller numbers also reported using edibles 8 and cannabis oil 5 Some of these respondents provided detailed information enabling analysis of how herbal cannabis and cannabis resin are retailed in Europe. This finding supports other research indicating the growth of internet-based methods for purchasing drugs Barratt et al. However, the use of these methods appears to differ significantly between countries in Europe Skliamis and Korf, It should be noted that the results of the EWSD cannot readily be generalised to any larger populations. Significant differences among European countries were also apparent in the use of different delivery methods see Table Delivery methods for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. At the aggregate level, for the 7 EWSD respondents reporting how they usually buy cannabis resin, and how it is delivered to them, the results are broadly similar to those of herbal cannabis see Figures In the last 12 months, how did you usually buy cannabis resin hashish? At the country-level, however, some differences are observable see Table Sources of acquisition for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. Delivery methods were shown by the EWSD to be fairly consistent between cannabis resin and herbal cannabis at the aggregate level see Figure In the last 12 months, how was the cannabis resin hashish usually delivered to you? As already indicated, a range of sources of acquisition and delivery methods are used for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin in Europe see Tables Sources of acquisition for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin and Delivery methods for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. The data appear to point to distinct retail markets for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin, both in Europe as a whole and within individual countries, although caution is required when comparing these data, due to small sample sizes in some countries and also because of the relatively small sample size for resin. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that it is important to analyse the herbal cannabis and cannabis resin markets separately Vuolo and Matias, Data from eight darknet markets gathered in Cannazon, Alphabay, ASAP, Cypher, Dark0dereborn, Royal, Versus and World showed a total of 13 unique listings 5 sale offers for cannabis products reported as being shipped from an EU country in To put this in context, while not directly comparable, in a similar scanning exercise conducted in , 10 listings were found for cocaine and 1 for methamphetamine. This includes high-THC products such as concentrates e. However, caution is needed in interpreting these data as neither the number of transactions nor the number of individual sellers can be extrapolated from the number of listings alone. Nonetheless, listings provide a useful indicator of the activity on darknet markets. The typical quantity most frequently observed value of herbal cannabis offered was 5 grams 1 listings , followed by 10 grams 1 and 1 gram The typical price per gram was EUR 14 in 74 listings of 1 gram. In , bulk listings of herbal cannabis were observed see Table Quantity and price details of bulk herbal cannabis listings shipping from EU, The typical quantity of cannabis resin offered in was 5 grams , followed by 10 grams and 1 gram The typical price per gram was EUR 15 in 20 listings of 1 gram. There were 64 bulk listings of cannabis resin observed in However, due to the limited price data available for analysis, caution should be exercised when interpreting these findings. A small proportion of the listings on darknet markets in included cannabis concentrates and edibles. Social media platforms are frequently used to promote and sell cannabis products see forthcoming EU Drug Markets: Drivers and Facilitators , section on Social media and instant messaging apps. Cannabis products have been found to feature prominently on Facebook, where they represent the majority of the drug content advertised for sale, as seen in Denmark, Iceland and Sweden Demant et al. Overall, social media platforms appear to be frequently used to promote drug sales, sometimes using creative photo or video editing or other marketing techniques Geoffroy, ; Paolini and Lepoivre, ; MCP, ; see also Box Cannabis marketing methods in France: learning from licit business enterprises. Cannabis influencers, that is, individuals promoting cannabis products to their followers on social media platforms, have become particularly active on Instagram. While most cannabis influencers appear to be male, there are indications that female influencers are becoming more active on social media Bakken and Harder, This may be part of a broader push towards commercialising cannabis and attempting to sell licensed and unlicensed products to a mainstream audience, in addition to influencing ongoing policy debates. Estimating the size of illicit drug markets is inherently difficult and cannabis is no exception. Nevertheless, because cannabis is the drug most frequently used in Europe and its use generally has a higher level of social acceptance compared to other illicit drugs, there are comparatively more comprehensive and robust data relating to its use. These data enable a more accurate estimation of the size of the illicit market for cannabis. However, this market is becoming increasingly complex due to the emergence of new products, for which data are limited. Thus, any estimate of the size of the illicit cannabis market is restricted to herbal cannabis and cannabis resin. Using the methodology established by the EMCDDA b , it was estimated that cannabis products account for the largest share of the overall illicit drug retail market in the EU, with an estimated value in of at least EUR Out of this total, the illicit market for herbal cannabis was estimated to be worth at least EUR 8. In comparison, the illicit cannabis resin market was estimated to be worth at least EUR 2. This estimate is based on the number of users and their patterns of use, the amount used per year and the average price paid at the retail level. This method, often called a demand-side approach, however, is prone to underestimation due to the misreporting and under-reporting of use Udrisard et al. The basic model used in the estimation process can be expressed in the following simple arithmetic form:. The estimated number of cannabis users was calculated based on prevalence data from general population surveys GPS and categorised according to frequency of use see Box Links between frequency of use and sources of acquiring cannabis. Separate estimates were generated for cannabis resin and herbal cannabis, and, given the high numbers of cannabis users, it was possible to obtain information on the amounts of each product used by different types of users. Individuals were categorised into four different groups according to frequency of cannabis use, as follows:. Taken together, these data were used to estimate the illicit retail market size for herbal cannabis and cannabis resin respectively. There are limitations to this method. For example, for some variables where no data were available, it was necessary to impute values. This included instances when a country had no price data, in which case a simple average of the values for the other countries was used, and when prevalence data was not available for , instead of which the latest available data were used. Occasionally, EU Member States construct their own market size estimates for drugs that are particularly relevant at the national level. For example, Czech authorities have developed an estimate for the market size of methamphetamine, the most prevalent synthetic stimulant used in the country. Based on the latest available data, this illicit cannabis market had an estimated annual turnover of EUR 1. Such national estimates are useful to contextualise the overall EU estimate. In a literature review conducted for this analysis Udrisard et al. Europe featured as a region of focus in two of the studies and nine of the studies looked at cannabis alone. The majority used a demand-side approach, while two employed a supply-side methodology see Box Supply-side approaches to estimating the size of illicit drug markets , and three used a combination of both. As already highlighted, estimating cannabis consumption using wastewater is challenging, and more research is needed in this area, which may improve the use of this method in the future Causanilles et al. Ten of the studies employing the demand-side approach augmented user numbers by drawing on general population surveys and complementary sources to account for under-represented user populations. These include, for example, teenagers aged 15 and under, people with high-risk patterns of use, such as opioid users, or prisoners and homeless populations, all of whom may be excluded, to varying degrees, from GPS but can represent a significant number of cannabis users. All of the demand-side attempts to estimate illicit drug market sizes suffer from under-reporting, whereby people report no use or less frequent use, or do not respond to a representative survey, such as a GPS. Among the 15 papers using survey data, seven applied correction factors for under-reporting in order to provide new prevalence rates Udrisard et al. Data on quantities used also present issues that require a degree of interpretation and making assumptions. For example, while two studies asked questions about how many cannabis joints were smoked, neither asked about the typical amount of cannabis contained in one joint. To fill such data gaps, information on quantities used can be collected via non-representative surveys that specifically target people who use drugs. This is the basis for using data from the European Web Survey on Drugs to develop an EU-level estimate of the illicit cannabis market. It is notable that while some studies considered the issue of cannabis sharing and how this impacted on their market size estimates, it was concluded that there was no real evidence of a global overestimation. While estimates were not revised to account for this potential issue, researchers have strongly recommended further research in this area Udrisard et al. The study conducted for estimating the size of illicit drug markets in the EU concluded that there remains a strong suspicion that demand-based estimates, especially for the drugs most used in Europe, underestimate the real size of these markets Udrisard et al. Nevertheless, the expert consultation that was part of the study confirmed that there are very few alternatives to demand-based approaches for drug market estimates. Overall, further research is needed in this area. Further information is available online. However, respondents from these partner countries are not included in the analysis presented in this report. Consult the list of references used in this module. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. Selected topics Alternatives to coercive sanctions Cannabis Cannabis policy Cocaine Darknet markets Drug checking Drug consumption facilities Drug markets Drug-related deaths Drug-related infectious diseases. Recently published Findings from a scoping literature…. Penalties at a glance. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug…. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic…. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer…. EU Drug Market: New psychoactive…. EU Drug Market: Drivers and facilitators. Statistical Bulletin home. Quick links Search news Subscribe newsletter for recent news Subscribe to news releases. This make take up to a minute. Once the PDF is ready it will appear in this tab. Sorry, the download of the PDF failed. Table of contents Search within the book. Introduction Introduction Key findings and threat assessment Key findings and threat assessment Global context Global context Production Production Trafficking and supply Trafficking and supply Retail markets Retail markets Criminal networks Criminal networks Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness. Search within the book Operator Any match. Exact term match only. Main subject. Target audience. Publication type. EU Drug Market: Cannabis — main page. On this page.

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Le Mans buying weed

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Food products containing cannabis extract edibles have emerged as a popular and lucrative facet of the legalized market for both recreational and medicinal cannabis. The many formulations of cannabis extracts used in edibles present a unique regulatory challenge for policy makers. The most prominent difference between ingestion and inhalation of cannabis extracts is the delayed onset of drug effect with ingestion. Consumers often do not understand this aspect of edible use and may consume a greater than intended amount of drug before the drug has taken effect, often resulting in profoundly adverse effects. Written for the educated layperson and for policy makers, this paper explores the current state of research regarding edibles, highlighting the promises and challenges that edibles present to both users and policy makers, and describes the approaches that four states in which recreational cannabis use is legal have taken regarding regulating edibles. To provide a better understanding of the implications of increased use of edible cannabis products, we describe promises and challenges associated with use of cannabis-infused edibles and critically examine extant research on factors related to their use. We have blended science and regulatory factors in order to provide an overview of edibles for the educated layperson and for policy makers. Although some of the issues discussed are relevant for other methods of cannabis use e. Further, our discussion primarily focuses on consequences of intentional use of edibles in adults. Marijuana or cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug in the United States, with 9. Further, the population of users is increasing, a finding that is associated with decreased perception of harm from cannabis use Johnston et al. As additional initiatives to decrease or eliminate criminal penalties for possession of small amounts of cannabis are already pending in several states, this trend is likely to continue, at least in the short term. In , California became the first state to legalize medicinal use of cannabis. By April , 24 states and the District of Columbia had passed laws that allow medicinal use, and four states Alaska, Colorado, Oregon, and Washington had legalized recreational use, with several other states likely to vote on legalization later in The District of Columbia has decriminalized the possession of cannabis in amounts of 2 ounces or less but has not established a regulatory framework that allows for recreational cannabis sales D. Although specific laws governing cultivation and regulating dispensaries vary across states Fairman, , most states distinguish between medicinal and recreational use of cannabis. Medicinal use of cannabis involves obtaining a prescription for cannabis from a licensed medical professional for treatment of a medical issue e. Unlike medications approved through a formal data-driven process by the US Food and Drug Administration FDA , medicinal cannabis dosage is not specified. Possession of a medicinal cannabis card allows purchase, with details dependent upon state law e. Perhaps the largest area of difference between the two types of use is in the disparate regulatory requirements, including taxation. While medicinal and retail cannabis products are similar, regulations may vary between the two marketplaces. Code Regs. While popular perception of cannabis use calls up images of smoking a joint or pipe, cannabis has been formulated to allow for other modes of administration, including oral and topical use. Edibles are food products infused with cannabis extract. Edibles come in many forms—including baked goods, candies, gummies, chocolates, lozenges, and beverages—and may be homemade or prepared commercially for dispensaries. The extraneous plant material is then discarded. Recipes for using the resulting cannabinoid-infused oil abound on the internet and in various specialty publications. Cannabinoid-infused oil may also be purchased directly from many dispensaries and retail shops. Edibles have become popular among users in states where cannabis is legal for recreational or medicinal purposes or both. For example, in Colorado in , 1. Because direct purchase of cannabinoid-infused oil or cannabis used to make homemade edibles is not tracked as an edibles purchase, the actual use of edibles is likely underestimated when examining purchase data. Furthermore, these data show sales but do not reflect the proportion of cannabis users who consume edibles. In addition, the extent to which the retail edibles were used by the purchaser or transferred to someone in another state for medicinal or recreational use is unknown. Survey data can be used to determine an estimate of actual consumption of edibles, which account for a substantial percentage of current cannabis use in both medicinal and recreational user groups. In general, use of edible cannabis appears more prevalent in states that have legalized medicinal cannabis use, particularly those states that have had legalized medicinal use in place for a longer time, as well as in legalized-medicinal-use states with more dispensaries per capita Borodovsky et al. In a nationally representative study of adults in the US, However, scientific evaluation of the accuracy of these perceptions is incomplete. The vast majority of research on the therapeutic efficacy of cannabinoids has been conducted using oral preparations formulated by pharmaceutical companies for the treatment of these conditions. However, the increased state-level legalization of cannabis for medicinal or recreational purposes may serve as an impetus for funding additional high-quality studies on the effects of cannabis on health and in treatment of disease. Despite initial support for the efficacy of oral cannabinoid medication, many medicinal cannabis patients prefer to smoke cannabis Grella et al. Further, in clinical trials of nabiximols, 80 percent of participants who reported adverse effects experienced these effects within the first 28 days of treatment, although incidence of adverse effects was reduced when dose was increased gradually reviewed in Robson, Both low and high doses 1. By contrast, several double-blind studies report comparable subjective effects for dronabinol and smoked cannabis when dose and time after administration are taken into account Haney et al. Few laboratory studies have been undertaken using actual cannabis-infused edibles. Participants experienced drug effects that were rated as favorable, with peak responses occurring an average of 3 hours after ingestion and effects dissipating within 24 hours. Physiological measures of drug effect i. Certainly, the continued use of edibles despite initial nonpreference by many users suggests other advantages of this route of administration. One of these advantages may be the longer duration of action for edibles Huestis, For medicinal cannabis users with chronic conditions, an extended duration of action might be helpful in the workplace because smoking cannabis in public is often still prohibited, even in states where medicinal cannabis use is legal e. Code Ann. In addition, despite an overall increase in acceptance of cannabis, qualitative studies indicate that patients still report perception of stigma associated with its use Bottorff et al. Edibles avoid issues of odors and stigma because they can be consumed discreetly. For example, medicinal users may choose to consume edibles during the work week and smoke or vape when not at work. Consumers may also favor edibles because they are easier to transport, particularly into states where their use is not legal. One of the most significant factors in the decision to use cannabis-infused edibles is the perception that edibles avoid the harmful toxins and health risks that may be associated with smoking Murphy et al. Because the health risks associated with smoking tobacco are substantial reviewed in Center for Disease Control and Prevention, , the risks of smoked cannabis are often assumed to be similarly severe. However, the accuracy of this assumption is unclear. Qualitatively, cannabis smoke and tobacco smoke seem similar in toxicity, given that both contain a variety of toxins and known carcinogens Moir et al. Although lung inflammation may predispose users to pulmonary infection, the degree to which these changes in lung function may lead to chronic pulmonary disease e. At any rate, eating cannabis-infused edibles does not seem to affect pulmonary function or to increase cancer risk, which provides a solid rationale for choosing this route of administration as opposed to smoking cannabis, particularly for medical conditions such as cancer. Yet use of cannabis-infused edibles is not without its own set of challenges. In addition to health issues that are likely confined to smoking cannabis, research has suggested that regular cannabis use may have detrimental effects on brain development, psychiatric health, and heart health Volkow et al. In the next section, we describe some of the challenges associated with use of edibles. Despite the potential promises of edibles for treatment of a variety of ailments, there are also dangers inherent in edible use that present challenges for users and policy makers. Generally, in healthy adult users, psychotic symptoms brought on by an overdose of cannabis last only for the duration of intoxication, but in some cases, these symptoms can persist for as long as several days. Factors directly related to the oral route of administration of edibles may contribute to this finding of a strong association between edible use and overconsumption. Edibles introduce cannabinoids through the gastrointestinal tract. Factors such as weight, metabolism, gender, and eating habits also contribute to how soon and for how long someone will feel intoxicated following oral ingestion Grotenhermen, ; Huestis, The lack of consistency and the delayed intoxication may cause both new and experienced users of cannabis to consume higher than intended amounts of the drug. Edible products are responsible for the majority of health care visits due to cannabis intoxication, which is likely due to the failure of users to appreciate the delayed effects Monte et al. Similarly, dosage estimation for retail products may also be inexact e. Anecdotal reports from medicinal cannabis patients confirm that even daily users may consume a higher dose than expected Hudak et al. Patients reported that, having eaten the suggested serving size initially, they consumed the entire edible product after not feeling any effects. They also reported that it was practical to consume the entire edible product in one sitting, just as they would a normal baked good Hudak et al. In order to minimize risk of accidental overdose, it is recommended that users of edibles gradually up-titrate their dose until they find an effective dose. Another concern surrounding the use of edibles is that some products available for retail sale are packaged to resemble commercially available products in forms that may be appealing to children e. A review of data from the National Poison Data System from to found that decriminalization of cannabis was associated with increased reports of unintentional exposures in young children up to 9 years of age; Wang et al. Cannabis-related calls to poison control centers in decriminalized states increased by In contrast, the rate of cannabis-related calls to poison control centers in nonlegal states showed an average increase of only 1. However, despite the increases in calls to poison control centers, emergency room visits resulting from pediatric exposure to cannabis remain relatively low, even in decriminalized states. In , the same emergency department treated eight children mostly under the age of 3 who ingested edible cannabis. The number increased to 14 children in Baskfield, Another emergency department in Colorado showed an increase in visits from 0 percent to 2. Not unexpectedly, ingestion was the most common route of exposure resulting in most of these emergency room visits Wang et al. In addition to emergency room visits by children, the number of cannabis-related emergency room visits by adult non-Colorado residents compared with those by in-state residents has also increased since recreational cannabis use was legalized in Colorado. Out-of-town patient visits to a hospital in Aurora, Colorado, for health issues following consumption of edibles almost doubled from 85 per 10, visits in to per 10, visits in ; statistically significant differences were not observed for Colorado residents during the same time period Kim et al. Reports of inadvertent ingestion of cannabis edibles by adults are widespread. For example, a group of preschool teachers in California experienced nausea, dizziness, headache, and other symptoms after consuming brownies containing cannabis. One of the teachers had purchased the brownies from a sidewalk vendor and placed them in the breakroom Fogleman et al. In focus groups with teenagers, females who did not use cannabis expressed more concern than female cannabis users and males users and nonusers about edibles and compared them to drinks that could be spiked with drugs Friese et al. Tragically, at least one death has occurred following ingestion of an edible cannabis product. However, having not felt intoxicated within 60 minutes, the man ate the whole cookie within 2 hours of ingesting the initial serving. Similar requirements are in place for Washington State Wash. Another challenge related to edibles is the perception that they represent food products containing cannabis, when in reality the cannabis extracts used to produce edibles can be very different from the actual plant material used for smoking. Myriad techniques are used to extract cannabinoids from the cannabis plant in a form that can be integrated into the countless forms that edibles can take, resulting in considerable variation in the amount and homogeneity of cannabinoids that make it into the final products. The cannabis plant contains hundreds of chemical constituents, including around cannabinoids Radwan et al. Other cannabinoids, most notably cannabidiol CBD , are believed to modulate these effects Russo, ; Schubart et al. Yet, despite evidence of the value of including CBD in edibles, especially those intended for medicinal use, few edible manufacturers report the CBD content of their products. Further, even among products reported to contain CBD, many contain only trace amounts or none at all Vandrey et al. In fact, although the FDA has yet to acknowledge the therapeutic applications of the cannabis plant, it has issued warning letters to several manufacturers of products purported to contain CBD. These actions by the FDA highlight the lack of consistency in formulation and labeling of cannabis products. Text , amending 1 Colo. Because cannabis is illegal at the federal level, the recreational and medicinal cannabis industries are not subject to federal quality control regulations, but rather are regulated on a state-by-state basis. Consequently, the edibles sold at medicinal and recreational dispensaries do not face the stringent quality control measures that are used to ensure the quality and consistency of medications or other legalized drugs e. Even if accurate drug content labeling for edibles can be achieved, this information is only useful if it is used and understood by consumers. A nationally representative survey of US adults conducted by the US FDA found that 50 percent of adults reported that they often read the label on food products when buying a product for the first time and 29 percent sometimes read the label Lin et al. Among respondents who reported that they never read labels, 59 percent strongly agreed or agreed that they do not use the information on food labels because it is too hard to understand. This review found that consumers understand some of the more simple terms on nutrition labels but are confused by more complex information. Rothman et al. Similar concerns have been identified when assessing consumer understanding of label information on prescription medications. Davis et al. Further, among patients who understood the labels, only a minority could correctly demonstrate how to take the medication. Because cannabis is illegal at the federal level, the recreational and medicinal cannabis industries are regulated on a state-by-state basis. As of , four states Alaska, Colorado, Oregon, and Washington have legalized recreational sales and use. In Alaska, the Marijuana Control Board regulates cannabis. In , Colorado and Washington became the first states to legalize retail sale, purchase, and possession of cannabis by anyone 21 and older. After voters approved legalization, the states spent more than a year setting up regulatory frameworks to develop regulatory systems. Each state put into place a tax structure and set up a licensing system to regulate the cultivation and distribution of cannabis products before allowing retail stores to begin selling to consumers in Oregon and Alaska are still in the process of establishing regulatory systems for legalized cannabis. In Oregon, the sale of edibles at retail outlets began on June 2, Or. In Alaska, the first business licenses have been issued, and retail sales, including marijuana edibles, are expected to begin before the end of , once the state has completed the process of licensing testing facilities Thiessen, Although recreational cannabis policies continue to evolve, all four states with legalized retail sales require labeling of edible cannabis products. For example, warning labels or accompanying material in the states of Colorado, Washington, and Alaska must state that cannabis has intoxicating effects 1 Colo. Code tit. Washington and Oregon also require or will require that additional informational material be distributed to buyers of edibles with each sale or displayed on posters in the dispensary Wash. Nutritional information labels for edible cannabis products also vary across states. For example, Colorado 1 Colo. All four states require that information about quality control testing be made available to the consumer 1 Colo. Furthermore, the labels, accompanying material, or information available upon request at retail stores in Colorado, Washington, and Alaska mandate disclosure of all pesticides that were used during production 1 Colo. Each of the four states with legalized retail sales also has specific requirements about how edible cannabis products are manufactured. All four states prohibit packaging edibles in a manner that appeals to children 1 Colo. Washington, Oregon, and Alaska each prohibit the manufacturing of edibles that are likely to appeal to children, such as candy Wash. Specifically, Washington and Oregon do not allow manufacturers to process cannabis items that are modeled after non-cannabis products consumed by children, such as cotton candy or lollipops, or that are shaped like animals, vehicles, persons, or characters Wash. Alaska prohibits manufacturers from packaging any product in bright colors or with cartoon characters or other pictures that would appeal to children Alaska Admin. Furthermore, pesticides are allowed under certain circumstances in all four states as long as records are kept of all pesticides used during certain stages of cultivation and manufacturing and the pesticides do not exceed the allowable amount 1 Colo. Edibles have emerged as a popular method of cannabinoid administration in the legalized cannabis market and have proven to be quite lucrative for states, dispensaries, and manufacturers. However, many questions remain unanswered regarding the basic effects of edibles and how consumers understand and use these products. Further research into cannabinoids, and edibles in particular, is needed so that policy makers can be well informed when establishing regulations regarding the manufacture, labeling, and sale of edibles. The need for additional regulation of edibles is evident given the frequency of cannabis overdoses and accidental pediatric exposures. Such risks can be reduced through standardization of product formulations, adequate quality control measures, and appropriate product labeling. In summary, on the production side, much remains to be done to ensure that edibles provide a consistent dosage. Daniel G. Barrus conducts nonclinical behavioral pharmacology and toxicology research. Kristen L. Capogrossi conducts economic analysis of nutrition policy, food safety regulation, food production and marketing, and related areas using econometrics, simulation modeling, statistical analysis, and other methods. Sheryl C. She conducts studies to assess consumer use and understanding of labeling features and response to alternative label formats. Her research also assesses the impact of educational interventions on outcomes related to healthy eating and foodborne illness prevention. Camille K. Nicholas C. His research concentrates on the etiology, correlates, and consequences of psychiatric disorders, with a particular focus on early intervention for adolescents and young adults. Peiper works with Dr. Scott P. His current work focuses on characterizing the epidemiological trends and identifying the at-risk populations for prescription drug abuse and co-occurring illicit drug use. Timothy W. Lefever has been conducting preclinical behavioral research for over 13 years and has been testing the effects of cannabinoids in these models extensively during the past 5 years. Jenny L. Wiley , PhD, is a leading expert in behavioral pharmacology. Wiley designs and supervises a program of in vivo research at RTI International, including the synthesis and development of candidate medications and investigation of neural mechanisms underlying substance abuse. She also conducts independent NIH grant-supported research in the area of cannabinoid pharmacology. Acts prohibited at marijuana product manufacturing facility, Alaska Admin. Places of employment; Penal institutions; Incarcerated persons; Health insurance providers, Cal. What are the recordkeeping requirements for marijuana licensees? What are the security requirements for a marijuana licensee? What is a marijuana processor license and what are the requirements and fees related to a marijuana processor license? As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Find articles by Daniel G Barrus. Find articles by Kristen L Capogrossi. Find articles by Sheryl C Cates. Find articles by Camille K Gourdet. Find articles by Nicholas C Peiper. Find articles by Scott P Novak. Find articles by Timothy W Lefever. Find articles by Jenny L Wiley. PMC Copyright notice. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

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