Latin Wikipedia

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For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation) .
Latin inscription, in the Colosseum of Rome , Italy
Antiquity: Roman schools of grammar/rhetoric [1] Today: Pontifical Academy for Latin
Map indicating the greatest extent of the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan ( c. 117 AD ) and the area governed by Latin speakers (dark red). Many languages other than Latin were spoken within the empire.
Range of the Romance languages, the modern descendants of Latin, in Europe.

^ "Schools". Britannica (1911 ed.).

^ Sandys, John Edwin (1910). A companion to Latin studies . Chicago: University of Chicago Press . pp. 811–812.

^ Clark 1900 , pp. 1–3

^ "History of Europe - Barbarian migrations and invasions" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Retrieved 6 February 2021 .

^ Diringer 1996 , pp. 533–4

^ Collier's Encyclopedia: With Bibliography and Index . Collier. 1 January 1958. p. 412. Archived from the original on 21 April 2016 . Retrieved 15 February 2016 . In Italy, all alphabets were originally written from right to left; the oldest Latin inscription, which appears on the lapis niger of the seventh century BC, is in bustrophedon, but all other early Latin inscriptions run from right to left.

^ Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z . London: Broadway Books. p. 80 . ISBN 978-0-7679-1172-6 .

^ Pope, Mildred K (1966). From Latin to modern French with especial consideration of Anglo-Norman; phonology and morphology . Publications of the University of Manchester, no. 229. French series, no. 6. Manchester: Manchester university press. p. 3.

^ Monroe, Paul (1902). Source book of the history of education for the Greek and Roman period . London, New York: Macmillan & Co. pp. 346–352.

^ Herman & Wright 2000 , pp. 17–18

^ Herman & Wright 2000 , p. 8

^ Pei, Mario; Gaeng, Paul A. (1976). The story of Latin and the Romance languages (1st ed.). New York: Harper & Row. pp. 76–81 . ISBN 978-0-06-013312-2 .

^ Herman & Wright 2000 , pp. 1–3

^ Jump up to: a b Pulju, Timothy. "History of Latin" . Rice University . Retrieved 3 December 2019 .

^ Posner, Rebecca; Sala, Marius (1 August 2019). "Romance Languages" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 3 December 2019 .

^ Jump up to: a b Elabani, Moe (1998). Documents in medieval Latin . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-0-472-08567-5 .

^ "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue" . British Library . Archived from the original on 12 March 2011 . Retrieved 2 March 2011 .

^ Ranieri, Luke (3 March 2019). "What is Latin? the history of this ancient language, and the proper way we might use it" . YouTube . Retrieved 3 December 2019 .

^ Moore, Malcolm (28 January 2007). "Pope's Latinist pronounces death of a language" . The Daily Telegraph . Archived from the original on 26 August 2009.

^ "Liber Precum Publicarum, The Book of Common Prayer in Latin (1560). Society of Archbishop Justus, resources, Book of Common Prayer, Latin, 1560. Retrieved 22 May 2012" . Justus.anglican.org. Archived from the original on 12 June 2012 . Retrieved 9 August 2012 .

^ "Society of Archbishop Justus, resources, Book of Common Prayer, Latin, 1979. Retrieved 22 May 2012" . Justus.anglican.org. Archived from the original on 4 September 2012 . Retrieved 9 August 2012 .

^ " " Does Anybody Know What 'Veritas' Is?" | Gene Fant" . First Things . Retrieved 19 February 2021 .

^ "La Moncloa. Símbolos del Estado" . www.lamoncloa.gob.es (in Spanish) . Retrieved 30 September 2019 .

^ "Finnish broadcaster ends Latin news bulletins" . RTÉ News . 24 June 2019. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019.

^ "Latein: Nuntii Latini mensis lunii 2010: Lateinischer Monats rückblick" (in Latin). Radio Bremen. Archived from the original on 18 June 2010 . Retrieved 16 July 2010 .

^ Dymond, Jonny (24 October 2006). "Finland makes Latin the King" . BBC Online . Archived from the original on 3 January 2011 . Retrieved 29 January 2011 .

^ "Nuntii Latini" (in Latin). YLE Radio 1. Archived from the original on 18 July 2010 . Retrieved 17 July 2010 .

^ "About us (English)" . Circulus Latínus Londiniénsis (in Latin). 13 September 2015 . Retrieved 29 June 2021 .

^ Kuhner, John Byron (5 February 2019). "The Past Speaks" . Medium . Retrieved 29 June 2021 .

^ "Active Latin at Jesus College – Oxford Latinitas Project" . Retrieved 29 June 2021 .

^ "Graduate Certificate in Latin Studies - Institute for Latin Studies | Modern & Classical Languages, Literatures & Cultures" . mcl.as.uky.edu . Retrieved 29 June 2021 .

^ Finkenstaedt, Thomas; Dieter Wolff (1973). Ordered Profusion; studies in dictionaries and the English lexicon . C. Winter. ISBN 978-3-533-02253-4 .

^ Uwe Pörksen, German Academy for Language and Literature’s Jahrbuch [Yearbook] 2007 (Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2008, pp. 121-130)

^ Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook (PDF) . Walter de Gruyter. 2009. p. 370 . Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2017 . Retrieved 9 February 2017 .

^ Pei, Mario (1949). Story of Language . p. 28. ISBN 978-0-397-00400-3 .

^ LaFleur, Richard A. (2011). "The Official Wheelock's Latin Series Website" . The Official Wheelock's Latin Series Website. Archived from the original on 8 February 2011 . Retrieved 17 February 2011 .

^ "University of Cambridge School Classics Project – Latin Course" . Cambridgescp.com . Retrieved 23 April 2014 .

^ "Open University Undergraduate Course – Reading classical Latin" . .open.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014 . Retrieved 23 April 2014 .

^ "The Latin Programme – Via Facilis" . Thelatinprogramme.co.uk. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014 . Retrieved 23 April 2014 .

^ Beard, Mary (10 July 2006). "Does Latin "train the brain"?" . The Times Literary Supplement . Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. No, you learn Latin because of what was written in it – and because of the sexual side of life direct access that Latin gives you to a literary tradition that lies at the very heart (not just at the root) of Western culture.

^ "Coins" . Croatian National Bank . 30 September 2016. Archived from the original on 16 November 2017 . Retrieved 15 November 2017 .

^ Who only knows Latin can go across the whole Poland from one side to the other one just like he was at his own home, just like he was born there. So great happiness! I wish a traveler in England could travel without knowing any other language than Latin!, Daniel Defoe, 1728

^ Anatol Lieven, The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence, Yale University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-300-06078-5 , Google Print, p.48

^ Kevin O'Connor, Culture And Customs of the Baltic States, Greenwood Press, 2006, ISBN 0-313-33125-1 , Google Print, p.115

^ Jump up to: a b Karin Friedrich et al., The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772 , Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-58335-7 , Google Print, p.88 Archived 15 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine

^ Allen 1978 , pp. viii–ix

^ Sihler, Andrew L. (1995). New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin . Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508345-3 . Archived from the original on 9 November 2016.

^ Levy 1973 , p. 150

^ Allen 1978 , pp. 45, 46

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Wheelock, Frederic M. (7 June 2011). Wheelock's Latin . LaFleur, Richard A. (7th ed.). New York. ISBN 978-0-06-199721-1 . OCLC 670475844 .

^ Sihler 2008 , p. 174.

^ Allen 1978 , pp. 33–34

^ Jump up to: a b c Allen 1978 , pp. 60–63

^ Husband, Richard (1910). "The Diphthong -ui in Latin". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association . 41 : 19–23. doi : 10.2307/282713 . JSTOR 282713 .

^ Allen 1978 , pp. 53–55

^ Diringer 1996 , pp. 451, 493, 530

^ Diringer 1996 , p. 536

^ Jump up to: a b c Diringer 1996 , p. 538

^ Diringer 1996 , p. 540

^ "Conjugation". Webster's II new college dictionary . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1999.

^ Jump up to: a b Wheelock, Frederic M. (2011). Wheelock's Latin (7th ed.). New York: CollinsReference.

^ Jump up to: a b Holmes & Schultz 1938 , p. 13

^ Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible: Unraveling the Mystery of the Alphabet from A to Z . London: Broadway Books. p. 351 . ISBN 978-0-7679-1172-6 .

^ Jump up to: a b Holmes & Schultz 1938 , p. 14

^ Norberg, Dag; Johnson, Rand H, Translator (2004) [1980]. "Latin at the End of the Imperial Age" . Manuel pratique de latin médiéval . University of Michigan . Retrieved 20 May 2015 .

^ Jenks 1911 , pp. 3, 46

^ Jenks 1911 , pp. 35, 40

^ Ebbe Vilborg – Norstedts svensk-latinska ordbok – Second edition, 2009.

^ Jump up to: a b Tore Janson – Latin – Kulturen, historien, språket – First edition, 2009.

^ Quintilian , Institutio Oratoria (95 CE)



Allen, William Sidney (1978) [1965]. Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22049-1 .
Baldi, Philip (2002). The foundations of Latin . Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bennett, Charles E. (1908). Latin Grammar . Chicago: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 978-1-176-19706-0 .
Buck, Carl Darling (1904). A grammar of Oscan and Umbrian, with a collection of inscriptions and a glossary . Boston: Ginn & Company.
Clark, Victor Selden (1900). Studies in the Latin of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance . Lancaster: The New Era Printing Company.
Diringer, David (1996) [1947]. The Alphabet – A Key to the History of Mankind . New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Private Ltd. ISBN 978-81-215-0748-6 .
Herman, József; Wright, Roger (Translator) (2000). Vulgar Latin . University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press . ISBN 978-0-271-02000-6 .
Holmes, Urban Tigner; Schultz, Alexander Herman (1938). A History of the French Language . New York: Biblo-Moser. ISBN 978-0-8196-0191-9 .
Levy, Harry Louis (1973). A Latin reader for colleges . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-47602-2 .
Janson, Tore (2004). A Natural History of Latin . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-926309-7 .
Jenks, Paul Rockwell (1911). A Manual of Latin Word Formation for Secondary Schools . New York: D.C. Heath & Co.
Palmer, Frank Robert (1984). Grammar (2nd ed.). Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England; New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Penguin Books . ISBN 978-81-206-1306-5 .
Sihler, Andrew L (2008). New comparative grammar of Greek and Latin . New York: Oxford University Press.
Vincent, N. (1990). "Latin". In Harris, M.; Vincent, N. (eds.). The Romance Languages . Oxford: Oxford University Press . ISBN 978-0-19-520829-0 .
Waquet, Françoise; Howe, John (Translator) (2003). Latin, or the Empire of a Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries . Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-402-1 .
Wheelock, Frederic (2005). Latin: An Introduction (6th ed.). Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-078423-2 .
Curtius, Ernst (2013). European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages . Princeton University. ISBN 978-0-691-15700-9 .

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Latin ( latīnum , [laˈt̪iːnʊ̃] or lingua latīna , [ˈlɪŋɡʷa laˈt̪iːna] ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken in the area around Rome, known as Latium . [2] Through the power of the Roman Republic , it became the dominant language in Italy, and subsequently throughout the western Roman Empire , before eventually becoming a dead language . Latin has contributed many words to the English language. In particular, Latin (and Ancient Greek ) roots are used in English descriptions of theology, the sciences , medicine , and law .

By the late Roman Republic (75 BC), Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken at that time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence [3] and author Petronius . Late Latin is the written language from the 3rd century; its colloquial form Vulgar Latin developed in the 6th to 9th centuries into the Romance languages , such as: Italian , Sardinian , Venetian , Neapolitan , Sicilian , Piedmontese , Lombard , French , Franco-Provençal , Occitan , Corsican , Ladin , Friulan , Romansh , Catalan / Valencian , Aragonese , Spanish , Asturian , Galician , Portuguese and Romanian . Medieval Latin was used as a literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance which used Renaissance Latin . Later, Early Modern Latin and New Latin evolved. Latin was the language of international communication, scholarship and science until well into the 18th century, when vernaculars (including the Romance languages ) supplanted it. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church .

Latin is a highly inflected language , with three distinct genders , six or seven noun cases , five declensions, four verb conjugations , six tenses , three persons , three moods , two voices , two or three aspects , and two numbers . The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets and ultimately from the Phoenician alphabet .

A number of historical phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, morphology, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names.

In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from Late Antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars.

After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. [4]

The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom to the later part of the Roman Republic period. It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon [5] [6] script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script. [7]

During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. [8] [9]

Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain snippets of everyday speech, indicates that a spoken language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ), existed concurrently with literate Classical Latin. The informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors and those found as graffiti. [10]
As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . [11] The decline of the Roman Empire meant a deterioration in educational standards that brought about Late Latin, a postclassical stage of the language seen in Christian writings of the time. It was more in line with everyday speech, not only because of a decline in education but also because of a desire to spread the word to the masses. [ citation needed ]

Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Moorish conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. [12] The Vulgar Latin dialect that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire.

One key marker of whether a given Romance feature was found in Vulgar Latin is to compare it with its parallel in Classical Latin. If it was not preferred in Classical Latin, then it most likely came from the undocumented contemporaneous Vulgar Latin. For example, the Romance for "horse" (Italian cavallo , French cheval , Spanish caballo , Portuguese cavalo and Romanian cal ) came from Latin caballus . However, Classical Latin used equus . Therefore, caballus was most likely the spoken form. [13]

Vulgar Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. [14] [15]

Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the postclassical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed. The spoken language had developed into the various incipient Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies.

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