Latin Borrowings Of The Old English Period

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Latin Borrowings Of The Old English Period

Latin is one of the languages that has most influenced English since its
birth as a language. In this essay we are going to approach the Latin influence
in vocabulary along the periods of the English language to see if, without the
Latin influence it would be as rich as it is now with it and if the language
would be impoverished or not.


In its beginnings, Old English did not have the large number of words
borrowed from Latin and French that now form part of English vocabulary. Old
English was a very flexible language capable of using old words and giving them
new uses.

Latin has been the second great
influence on English. It was the language of an educated and sophisticated
civilization from which the Saxon peoples wanted to learn. The contact between
these people was at first commercial and military but then it also became
religious and intellectual. Before going to England the Germans had already had
contact with the Romans and of course, from this contact they acquired some
Latin words. When Christian was introduced in England, the people living there
adopted many Latin elements.

English borrowings from Latin
came in three waves that extended the resourced of their vocabulary.

“A connection between Latin and
English is indicated by such correspondences as pater with English father, or
frāter with brother, although the difference in the initial consonants tends
somewhat to obscure the relationship” (Baugh, Cable 1993:18)

Albert Baugh and Thomas Cable, in
their book ‘A history of the English language' divide the Latin influences in
the vocabulary in three stages: The continental borrowing, the Latin through
Celtic transmission and the Latin influence of the second period and the norman
conquest.

We are going to see three
occasions in which borrowings from Latin occurred ¿¿¿before the end of the old
English period??:

During the continental borrowing,
the words were introduced because of the contact the German tribes had had with
the Romans on the continent. Some of the words introduced were already present
in the early Germanic dialects because of the trading contact. The Germans
coming back from the empire brought with them words apart from goods. The words
they adopted indicated new conceptions related with things they did not know or
for which they did not have terms. The germans in the empire dedicated
themselves to agriculture and war, as some words like camp (battle), segn
(banner), weall (wall), pytt(pit), strœt (road, street), mīl (mile) and miltestre
(courtesan) show. Owing to the commercial relationship most words are related
to trade. One of the things they traded was wine and we can observe words like
wīn (wine), eced (vinegar). They also traded domestic and household articles
plus clothing as in cytel (kettle L.Catillus). In the art of buildings and
construction there were words like copor (copper), pic (pitch) or tigele
(tile). The words the Germans borrowed reflected the kind of relationships they
had.

In the Celtic transmission, which
had a poor influence on old English made the Latin influence be limited too
during the roman occupation. The extent to which the country had been Romanised
and the use of latin by the population were not influential. Some terms could
be found in placenames but a direct contact between latin and old English was
not possible during this period because the Latin words came thought the
transmission of the celts and their interaction with old English was weak.
Words like ceaster ( L. castra. Camp) which today forms English place names as
Manchester or Doncaster or words like port (harbour, gate, town) from Latin
portus and porta; munt (mountain) from latin montem were introduced. The
influence of the language in the first period was the slightest of all.

The Latin influence of the second
period and the greatest of all was the Christianizing of Britain that started
in 597. From this moment until the end of the old engliush period around 500
years later words made their way into English thanks in most cases to
monasteries. It is needless to say that most of the terms introduced had to do
with the new religion. Some words like church or bishop already belonged to the
language because they had been introduced before but the vast majority of terms
having to do with churches and their services were introduced in this period.
Some examples are abbot, deacon, disciple, angel, althar, anthem, pal, pope,
psalm. But the church did not only influence religiously speaking. Some terms
related to the domestic life of people, clothes, food, trees, plants,
education, miscellaneous things or literature were introduced. Words like cap
or silk, lentil or caul (cabbage), pine or lily, the word plant itself, school,
master, grammatic(al), meter, notary, anchor, sponge or elephant or calend or
talent. There was a great influence in the early years of Christianity in
England. As the Latin influence always came and went hand in hand with the
church new words when with the Benedictine reform. The imports were different
now and they expressed scientific and learned ideas. But some words were still
related to religious matters antichrist, apostle or demon.

The words that predominated in
this period were the literary and learned ones. Some examples are accent,
history, paper, title. Plant names like coriander, cucumber, ginger. Trees like
cypress or laurel, some terms related to medical matters like cancer, paralysis
and some others related to animals like scorpion, tiger. Despite the
introduction of all these words English did not always adopt them to express a
new concept. An old word was generally applied to a new object or thing with a
small adaptation in order to convey new meanings. The Anglo-Saxons, for
example, did not borrow the words for which they already had a meaning.

According to Baugh, as a result
of the Christianizing of Britain some 450 Latin words appear in English
writings before the close of the English period (Baugh and 1993:86) In spite of
this, some words did not make their way into general use until later, when they
were reintroduced but others were fully accepted and incorporated into the
language.

Before the Norman Conquest Latin
was the language used by the church and the one of scholarship, international
communication and administration but then, after the conquest, it was replaced
by French.

A
History of the English Language . Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. 4th ed. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1993.
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Latin influences on the Germanic language of English
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Further information: Classical compound

^ Lounsbury, History of the English Language , page 42.

^ With disc/disk some computing scientists make the distinction between disc and disk as being that the former is optical, such as: CD or DVD, and the latter is magnetic, such as a hard disk. [1]


Although English is a Germanic language , it has Latin influences. Its grammar and core vocabulary are inherited from Proto-Germanic , but a significant portion of the English vocabulary comes from Romance and Latinate sources. A portion of these borrowings come directly from Latin , or through one of the Romance languages, particularly Anglo-Norman and French , but some also from Italian , Portuguese , and Spanish ; or from other languages (such as Gothic , Frankish or Greek ) into Latin and then into English. The influence of Latin in English, therefore, is primarily lexical in nature, being confined mainly to words derived from Latin and Greek roots.

The Germanic tribes who later gave rise to the English language traded and fought with the Latin speaking Roman Empire . Many words for common objects therefore entered the vocabulary of these Germanic people via Latin even before the tribes reached Britain : anchor , butter , camp , cheese , chest , cook , copper , devil , dish , fork , gem , inch , kitchen , mile , mill , mint (coin), noon , pillow , pound (unit of weight), punt (boat), sack , wall , street , wine .

Christian missionaries coming to Britain in the 6th or and 7th century brought with them Latin religious terms. Some of these words are English words of Greek origin/ultimately of Greek origin , as much of the technical language of Christianity developed from the Greek of the New Testament and the works of those Fathers of the Church who wrote in Greek.

During this time, the Catholic monks mainly wrote or copied text in Latin, the prevalent Medieval Lingua Franca of Europe. However, when monks occasionally wrote in the vernacular, Latin words were translated by finding suitable Old English equivalents. Often, a Germanic word was adopted and given a new shade of meaning in the process. Such was the case with Old English gōdspell ("gospel") for Latin Evangelium . Previously, the Old English word simply meant "good news," but its meaning was extended in Old English to fit a religious context. The same occurred for the Old Germanic pagan word blētsian , which meant "to sacrifice, consecrate by shedding blood". It was adapted by Old English scribes and christened to become the word bless . Similarly fullwiht
(literally, "full-being") and the verb fullian came to mean "baptism" and "to baptise" respectively, but probably originally referred to some kind of rite of passage.

Whenever a suitable Old English substitute could not be found, a Latin word could be chosen instead, and many Latin words entered the Old English lexicon in this way. Such words include: "biscop" "bishop" from Latin "episcopus", Old English "tepid""carpet" from Latin "tapetum", and Old English "sigel""brooch" from Latin "sigillum""culcer" and "læfel""spoon" from Latin "coclearium"and "labellum" beside Old English "spōn" and hlædel (Modern English ladle ); Old English forca from Latin furca "fork" next to Old English gafol ; Old English scamol "chair, stool" from Latin scamellum beside native stōl , benc and setl . All told, approximately 600 words were borrowed from Latin during the Old English period. [1] Often, the Latin word was severely restricted in sense, and was not widespread in use among the general populace. Latin words tended to be literary or scholarly terms and were not very common. The majority of them did not survive into the Middle English Period.

The Norman Conquest of 1066 gave England a two-tiered society with an aristocracy which spoke Anglo-Norman and a lower class which spoke English. From 1066 until Henry IV of England ascended the throne in 1399, the royal court of England spoke a Norman language that became progressively Gallicised through contact with French . However, the Norman rulers made no attempt to suppress the English language, apart from not using it at all in their court. In 1204, the Anglo-Normans lost their continental territories in Normandy and became wholly English. By the time Middle English arose as the dominant language in the late 14th century, the Normans had contributed roughly 10,000 words to English of which 75% remain in use today. Continued use of Latin by the Church and centres of learning brought a steady, though dramatically reduced, influx of new Latin lexical borrowings.

During the English Renaissance , from around 1500–1650, some 10,000 to 12,000 words entered the English lexicon, including the word lexicon . Some examples include aberration, allusion, anachronism, democratic, dexterity, enthusiasm, imaginary, juvenile, pernicious, sophisticated. Many of these words were borrowed directly from Latin, both in its classical and medieval forms. In turn, Late Latin also included borrowings from Greek.

The dawn of the age of scientific discovery in the 17th and 18th centuries created the need for new words to describe newfound knowledge. Many words were borrowed from Latin, while others were coined from Latin roots, prefixes, and suffixes, and Latin word elements freely combine with elements from all other languages including native Anglo-Saxon words. Some of the words which entered English at this time are: apparatus, aqueous, carnivorous, component, corpuscle, data, experiment, formula, incubate, machinery, mechanics, molecule, nucleus, organic, ratio, structure, vertebra.

In addition to a large number of historical borrowings and coinages, today Latinate words continue to be coined in English – see classical compounds – particularly in technical contexts. A number of more subtle consequences include: numerous doublets – two or more cognate terms from both a Germanic and Latinate source (or Latinate sources), such as cow/beef; numerous cases of etymologically unrelated terms for closely related concepts, notably Germanic nouns with a Latin adjective, such as bird/avian or hand/manual; complicated etymologies due to indirect borrowings (via Romance) or multiple borrowings; and usage controversies over the perceived complexity of Latinate terms.

As with Germanic/Latinate doublets from the Norman period, the use of Latinate words in the sciences gives us pairs with a native Germanic noun and a Latinate adjective:

Thus Latin constitutes a linguistic superstratum for English just as Japanese has a Chinese superstratum and Hindustani has a Persian superstratum.

It is not always easy to tell at what point a word entered English, or in what form. Some words have come into English from Latin more than once, through French or another Romance language at one time and directly from Latin at another. Thus there are pairs like fragile/frail, army/armada, corona/crown, ratio/reason, and rotund/round. The first word in each pair came directly from Latin, while the second entered English from French (or Spanish, in the case of armada ). In addition, some words have entered English twice from French, with the result that they have the same source, but different pronunciations reflecting changing pronunciation in French, for example, chief/chef (the former a Middle English borrowing and the latter modern). Multiple borrowings explain other word pairs and groups with similar roots but different meanings and/or pronunciations: canal/channel, poor/pauper, coy/quiet, disc/disk/dish/desk/dais/discus. [2]

David Corson in The Lexical Bar (1985) defended the thesis that academic English, due to its large portion of Greco-Latinate words, explains the difficulties of working class children in the educational system. When exposed at home mainly to colloquial English (the easier, shorter, Anglo-Saxon words), the differences with children who have more access to academic words (longer, more difficult, Greco-Latinate) tend not to become less by education but worse, impeding their access to academic or social careers. In various experiments and comparative studies Corson measured fewer differences between 12 year olds than 15 year olds due to their unfamiliarity with Greco-Latinate words in English and the way teachers deal with them.
Corson's views were not always represented correctly. In his totally revised Using English Words (1995) the linguistic, historical, psychological and educational aspects have been integrated better.



Continental borrowing is one of the
earliest Latin influences on Old English language. The German tribes Anglo,
Saxon and Jutes came to England and established the English language. But
before they had come to England, they had contact with the Latin language. So,
the first Latin words to find their way into the English language owe their
adoption to the early contact between the Romans and the Germanic tribes on the
continent or outside England . Several hundred Latin words found in the various
Germanic dialects at an early date—some in one dialect only, others in
several—testify to the extensive intercourse between the two peoples. The
Germanic people had immense contacts with peoples who spoke Latin. Traders,
Germanic as well as Roman, came and went, while Germanic youth returning from
within the empire must have carried back glowing accounts of Roman cities and
Roman life. Such intercourse between the two peoples was certain to carry words
from one language to the other. Moreover, intercommunication between the
different Germanic tribes was frequent and made possible the transference of
Latin words from one tribe to another. In any case some sixty words from the
Latin can be credited with a considerable degree of probability to the ancestors
of the English in their continental homes.

The adopted words naturally indicate the
new conceptions that the Germanic peoples acquired from this contact with a
higher civilization. Next to agriculture the chief occupation of the Germanic
tribes in the empire was war, and this experience is reflected in words like camp
(battle), segn (banner), and miltestre (courtesan). More
numerous are the words connected with trade. They traded amber, furs, slaves,
and probably certain raw materials for the products of Roman handicrafts,
articles of utility, luxury, and adornment. The words cēap (bargain; cf.
Eng., cheap, chapman ) and mangian (to trade) with its derivatives
mangere (monger), mangung (trade, commerce), and mangunghūs (shop)
are fundamental, while pund (pound), mydd (bushel), sēam (burden,
loan), and mynet (coin) are terms likely to be employed. From the last
word Old English formed the words mynetian (to mint or coin) and mynetere
(money-changer). One of the most important branches of Roman commerce with
the Germanic peoples was the wine trade: hence such words in English as wīn (wine),
must (new wine), eced (vinegar), and flasce (flask, bottle). To this period are probably
to be attributed the words cylle (L. culleus, leather bottle), cyrfette
(L. curcurbita, gourd), and sester (jar, pitcher).

A
History of the English Language . Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. 4th ed. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1993.
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