Latin Borrowings In English Three Periods
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Latin Borrowings In English Three Periods
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Latin influences on the Germanic language of English
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Further information: Classical compound
^ Lounsbury, History of the English Language , page 42.
^ With disc/disk some computing scientists make the distinction between disc and disk as being that the former is optical, such as: CD or DVD, and the latter is magnetic, such as a hard disk. [1]
Although English is a Germanic language , it has Latin influences. Its grammar and core vocabulary are inherited from Proto-Germanic , but a significant portion of the English vocabulary comes from Romance and Latinate sources. A portion of these borrowings come directly from Latin , or through one of the Romance languages, particularly Anglo-Norman and French , but some also from Italian , Portuguese , and Spanish ; or from other languages (such as Gothic , Frankish or Greek ) into Latin and then into English. The influence of Latin in English, therefore, is primarily lexical in nature, being confined mainly to words derived from Latin and Greek roots.
The Germanic tribes who later gave rise to the English language traded and fought with the Latin speaking Roman Empire . Many words for common objects therefore entered the vocabulary of these Germanic people via Latin even before the tribes reached Britain : anchor , butter , camp , cheese , chest , cook , copper , devil , dish , fork , gem , inch , kitchen , mile , mill , mint (coin), noon , pillow , pound (unit of weight), punt (boat), sack , wall , street , wine .
Christian missionaries coming to Britain in the 6th or and 7th century brought with them Latin religious terms. Some of these words are English words of Greek origin/ultimately of Greek origin , as much of the technical language of Christianity developed from the Greek of the New Testament and the works of those Fathers of the Church who wrote in Greek.
During this time, the Catholic monks mainly wrote or copied text in Latin, the prevalent Medieval Lingua Franca of Europe. However, when monks occasionally wrote in the vernacular, Latin words were translated by finding suitable Old English equivalents. Often, a Germanic word was adopted and given a new shade of meaning in the process. Such was the case with Old English gōdspell ("gospel") for Latin Evangelium . Previously, the Old English word simply meant "good news," but its meaning was extended in Old English to fit a religious context. The same occurred for the Old Germanic pagan word blētsian , which meant "to sacrifice, consecrate by shedding blood". It was adapted by Old English scribes and christened to become the word bless . Similarly fullwiht
(literally, "full-being") and the verb fullian came to mean "baptism" and "to baptise" respectively, but probably originally referred to some kind of rite of passage.
Whenever a suitable Old English substitute could not be found, a Latin word could be chosen instead, and many Latin words entered the Old English lexicon in this way. Such words include: "biscop" "bishop" from Latin "episcopus", Old English "tepid""carpet" from Latin "tapetum", and Old English "sigel""brooch" from Latin "sigillum""culcer" and "læfel""spoon" from Latin "coclearium"and "labellum" beside Old English "spōn" and hlædel (Modern English ladle ); Old English forca from Latin furca "fork" next to Old English gafol ; Old English scamol "chair, stool" from Latin scamellum beside native stōl , benc and setl . All told, approximately 600 words were borrowed from Latin during the Old English period. [1] Often, the Latin word was severely restricted in sense, and was not widespread in use among the general populace. Latin words tended to be literary or scholarly terms and were not very common. The majority of them did not survive into the Middle English Period.
The Norman Conquest of 1066 gave England a two-tiered society with an aristocracy which spoke Anglo-Norman and a lower class which spoke English. From 1066 until Henry IV of England ascended the throne in 1399, the royal court of England spoke a Norman language that became progressively Gallicised through contact with French . However, the Norman rulers made no attempt to suppress the English language, apart from not using it at all in their court. In 1204, the Anglo-Normans lost their continental territories in Normandy and became wholly English. By the time Middle English arose as the dominant language in the late 14th century, the Normans had contributed roughly 10,000 words to English of which 75% remain in use today. Continued use of Latin by the Church and centres of learning brought a steady, though dramatically reduced, influx of new Latin lexical borrowings.
During the English Renaissance , from around 1500–1650, some 10,000 to 12,000 words entered the English lexicon, including the word lexicon . Some examples include aberration, allusion, anachronism, democratic, dexterity, enthusiasm, imaginary, juvenile, pernicious, sophisticated. Many of these words were borrowed directly from Latin, both in its classical and medieval forms. In turn, Late Latin also included borrowings from Greek.
The dawn of the age of scientific discovery in the 17th and 18th centuries created the need for new words to describe newfound knowledge. Many words were borrowed from Latin, while others were coined from Latin roots, prefixes, and suffixes, and Latin word elements freely combine with elements from all other languages including native Anglo-Saxon words. Some of the words which entered English at this time are: apparatus, aqueous, carnivorous, component, corpuscle, data, experiment, formula, incubate, machinery, mechanics, molecule, nucleus, organic, ratio, structure, vertebra.
In addition to a large number of historical borrowings and coinages, today Latinate words continue to be coined in English – see classical compounds – particularly in technical contexts. A number of more subtle consequences include: numerous doublets – two or more cognate terms from both a Germanic and Latinate source (or Latinate sources), such as cow/beef; numerous cases of etymologically unrelated terms for closely related concepts, notably Germanic nouns with a Latin adjective, such as bird/avian or hand/manual; complicated etymologies due to indirect borrowings (via Romance) or multiple borrowings; and usage controversies over the perceived complexity of Latinate terms.
As with Germanic/Latinate doublets from the Norman period, the use of Latinate words in the sciences gives us pairs with a native Germanic noun and a Latinate adjective:
Thus Latin constitutes a linguistic superstratum for English just as Japanese has a Chinese superstratum and Hindustani has a Persian superstratum.
It is not always easy to tell at what point a word entered English, or in what form. Some words have come into English from Latin more than once, through French or another Romance language at one time and directly from Latin at another. Thus there are pairs like fragile/frail, army/armada, corona/crown, ratio/reason, and rotund/round. The first word in each pair came directly from Latin, while the second entered English from French (or Spanish, in the case of armada ). In addition, some words have entered English twice from French, with the result that they have the same source, but different pronunciations reflecting changing pronunciation in French, for example, chief/chef (the former a Middle English borrowing and the latter modern). Multiple borrowings explain other word pairs and groups with similar roots but different meanings and/or pronunciations: canal/channel, poor/pauper, coy/quiet, disc/disk/dish/desk/dais/discus. [2]
David Corson in The Lexical Bar (1985) defended the thesis that academic English, due to its large portion of Greco-Latinate words, explains the difficulties of working class children in the educational system. When exposed at home mainly to colloquial English (the easier, shorter, Anglo-Saxon words), the differences with children who have more access to academic words (longer, more difficult, Greco-Latinate) tend not to become less by education but worse, impeding their access to academic or social careers. In various experiments and comparative studies Corson measured fewer differences between 12 year olds than 15 year olds due to their unfamiliarity with Greco-Latinate words in English and the way teachers deal with them.
Corson's views were not always represented correctly. In his totally revised Using English Words (1995) the linguistic, historical, psychological and educational aspects have been integrated better.
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Anglo-Saxons received an enormous boost when Christianity brought its huge Latin vocabulary to England in AD 597. There was a collision of Old English and Latin.
a) Pope Gregory the Great sent St Augustine and a party of about 50 monks to bring God?s word to ?Anglii?.
They landed in Kent, which already had a small Christian community. The liberal-minded king arranged for Augustine to have a house in Canterbury, the capital of this tiny kingdom.
The conversion of England to Christianity was a gradual process, but a peaceful one.
b) In AD 635, Aidan (a charismatic preacher from the Celtic church in Ireland) independently began the conversion of the North.
Both sources (a & b) are reflected in the two Old English words for its central symbol: the cross.
North: Irish version Down South: From the Latin
CROS CRUX —- (produced) —- CRUC
With the establishment of Christianity came the building of churches and monasteries, providing education in a wide range of subjects. (Not only literature, but also taught poetry, astronomy and arithmetic).
The importance of this cultural revolution in the story of the English Language is not only that it strengthened and enriched Old English with new words, more than 400 of which survive to this day, but it also gave English new capacity to express abstract thoughts.
55 BC Julius Caesar invaded England with a bad result, due to some difficulties with the terrain and the natives didn?t collaborate.
54 BC Julius Caesar established himself in the Southeast of England. He exacted a tribute from the natives and this tribute was never paid.
In AD 43 Emperor Claudius undertook the conquest of the island with an army of 40,000 men, under the command of the senator AULUS PLAUTIUS.
Within three years, the Centre and the Southeast of England were under Roman rule.
The landing was first unopposed. But the Roman forces were eventually drawn up on the south bank of the Thames until the pre-arranged arrival of Claudius from Rome (the future emperor, Vespasian, played a notable part). The Thames was then crossed in three ways, by swimming, by a bridge and by a ford at Westminster.
The awaiting Britons were easily defeated by Claudius and peace negotiated. He returned to Rome and the rest of the campaign was left in the hands of Plautius, governor of the new province.
Britain adopted Roman ways of life. This is evident from:
· Construction of highways and roads.
· London became the provincial capital and major trading centre in Europe.
· Foundation of the first cities: houses, baths, temples?
· Roman house-building style. e.g. with heating apparatus and water supply.
· Building of houses in the countryside: villas.
· General use of Roman dress and Roman ornaments.
This process was cut in the fifth century mainly due to new invasions from the North-Western part of the continent.
The conquest of the South and South-West of England was entrusted to VESPASIAN and the second legion.
He subdued the Isle of Wight and advanced westwards to the present Devonshire.
The Romans possessed the best farming land, including the corn-producing area of East-Anglia.
Gradually, the frontier was pushed forward (Gloucester, Wroxeter and York). The new military centres were intended as bases for the conquest of Wales (in the West) and Brigantia (in the North).
During 14 years 3 governors were responsible for carrying out the expansionist programme dictated from Rome. The object was to secure all the lowland areas, suitable for farming and food production, by occupying the adjacent uplands and subjecting them to control from fortified positions.
The BRIGANTES were in possession of practically all northern England.
– Not homogeneous people: Confederation of Celtic tribes.
– Warlike and numerous.
– Ruled by a dynastic chieftain.
They succeeded in their advance northwards.
He was a governor in the Gaulish province of Aquitania. It was left to him (AD 78) to overcome the ORDOVICES of North Wales.
In North Wales he controlled from the new military centre he created at Chester.
AD 79 — He moved his troops by sea along the west coast of England to South Scotland: Newstead on the river Tweed became one of the principal centres of Roman power in Scotland.
AD 83 & 84 — he met opposition from the Caledonians (Romans 20,000 vs. an army of 30,000). But Romans won and shortly after this victory, he was recalled to Rome, where he died in retirement ten years later.
The building of Hadrian?s Wall was in AD 122-123.
The Lowlands of Scotland continued occupied, but the rebellions North were so troublesome that 4 years before he became emperor, Hadrian built a wall: 76 miles long on the North side of it. It?s the most elaborate Roman frontier work anywhere in Europe: dozens of forts, mile ?castles, and turrets.
But wasn?t only defensive in a military sense; its object was to prevent cattle-rustling and petty raids, and at the same time to act as a customs barrier.
There are 3 reverses that punctuate the decline of Roman Power in Britain.
The capture of Hadrian?s Wall AD 196. It was during Claudius Albinus (governor of Britain). The Brigantes and the Maeatae overrun part of the Roman Province as far South as York.
The situation was restored with the arrival in Britain of the Emperor Severus in AD 208. He remained until his death in York in 211.
Though peace was restored in the northern province and Scotland, the East coast of Britain was very vulnerable to attack by armed ships.
3) PICT, IRISH, SCOTS , SAXONS and FRANKS
On the second half of the third century, the Roman Empire was disintegrating. In AD 367 there was a co-ordinated assault upon Britain by Picts, Irish, Scots, Saxons and Franks.
Finally the Romans left the province, approximately in 410, when the last of the Roman troops were officially withdrawn from the island.
3. LATIN INFLUENCE ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
An evidence of the Romanization is the use of the Latin language. A lot of inscriptions have been found, all of them in Latin. These proceed from the military and official class. They don?t indicate a widespread use of Latin by the native population.
LATIN DID NOT REPLACE THE CELTIC LANGUAGE AS IT DID IN GAUL.
Its use by native Britons was probably confined to members of the upper classes and the inhabitants of the cities and towns. Its use was not sufficiently widespread to cause it to survive. Its use probably began to decline after 410.
The use of Latin did not survive, as the Celtic language did, the Germanic invasions that began in 410.
Many Latin words were incorporated into the English Language. The influence of Latin on English has been analysed in three main periods.
3.2. LATIN INFLUENCES ON OLD ENGLISH
The influence of Celtic upon Old English was slight because the Celt was not in a position to make any notable contribution to Anglo-Saxon civilization.
It was different with Latin, which was the language of a higher civilization.
Contact with that civilization: First – à Commercial and military
Later —> religious and intellectual
It was extended over many centuries and was constantly renewed.
The Germanic tribes (who later became the English) were still occupying their continental homes. They had various relations with the Romans through which they acquired a considerable number of Latin word
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