Latex Test
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Home » Immunology » Latex Agglutination Test
February 4, 2021October 13, 2018 by Sagar Aryal
Last Updated on February 4, 2021 by Sagar Aryal
A group of passive agglutination tests carried out by coating either antigen or antibody on an artificial carrier particle, called latex bead are called as latex agglutination test. They may alternatively referred to as latex fixation test and may be:
Latex Agglutination Test (LAT) for Antibody Detection: A Passive Agglutination Test with Antigen bound to the surface of latex beads (polystyrene latex particles; 0.8- 1 μm in diameter).
Latex Agglutination Test (LAT) for Antigen Detection: A Reverse Passive Agglutination Test with Antibody bound to the surface of latex beads.
To detect microbial and viral infections, autoimmune diseases, hormones, drugs or serum proteins by agglutination reaction of antigen-antibody.
Antibody or antigen molecules can be bound in random alignment to the surface of latex (polystyrene) beads. The number of antibody or antigen molecules bound to each latex particle is large, resulting in a high number of exposed potential binding sites. Antigen or antibody present in a specimen binds to the combining sites of the corresponding antigen/antibody exposed on the surfaces of the latex beads, forming cross-linked aggregates of latex beads and antigen/antibody. Large particle size of latex facilitates the visualization of the antigen-antibody reaction.
1.5 ml Vials, Microcentrifuge, Pipette, Microtips, Laboratory refrigerator, Glycine saline buffer, Blocking buffer, Antigen for coating, Latex beads, Test antiserum, Glass slides, Beaker, Tooth pick.
The common procedure for both types of latex test involves coating microbeads of latex with pathogen-specific antigens or antibodies. Patient’s cerebrospinal fluid, serum or urine is mixed with the coated latex particles in serial dilutions with normal saline and observed for agglutination (clumping).
Coating of Latex (For detection of antibodies)
Depending on the procedure, some reactions are reported as positive or negative and other reactions are graded on a 1+ to 4+ scale, with 2+ usually the minimum amount of agglutination visible in a positive sample without the aid of a microscope.
Positive: Agglutination of the beads evident by clumps in any of the dilutions is considered a positive result.
It confirms either that the patient’s body has produced the pathogen-specific antibody (if the test supplied the antigen) or that the specimen contains the pathogen’s antigen (if the test supplied the antibody).
Negative: No agglutination or formation of clumps.
Absence of pathogen-specific antigen or antibody.
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© 2021 Microbe Notes. Made with ♡ by Sagar Aryal.
Exams can be easily created in LATEX by means of the class exam.cls. This class makes it straightforward to typeset questions, and it sets a 1in margin in all paper sizes and provides special commands to write and compute grades. This article explains how to edit with exam.cls.
Let's see a simple working example of the exam class:
\documentclass{exam}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\begin{document}
\begin{center}
\fbox{\fbox{\parbox{5.5in}{\centering
Answer the questions in the spaces provided. If you run out of room
for an answer, continue on the back of the page.}}}
\end{center}
\vspace{5mm}
\makebox[\textwidth]{Name and section:\enspace\hrulefill}
\vspace{5mm}
\makebox[\textwidth]{Instructor’s name:\enspace\hrulefill}
\begin{questions}
\question Is it true that \(x^n + y^n = z^n\) if \(x,y,z\) and \(n\) are
positive integers?. Explain.
\question Prove that the real part of all non-trivial zeros of the function
\(\zeta(z)\) is \(\frac{1}{2}\)
\question Compute \[\int_{0}^{\infty} \frac{\sin(x)}{x}\]
\end{questions}
To use the exam class you must put the line
on top of your .tex file. This will enable the package's exam-related commands, and set the page format to allow margins for corrections.
The syntax of the questions environment is very similar to that of the itemize and enumerate environments. Each question is typed by putting the command \question before it.
The other commands in this example are not specific to the exam class, but may be useful to create a quick header for your exam.
In the previous section, a basic example showing how to create question was presented. Questions can be further customized, and this section explains how.
If the students are required to answer the exam in the space provided, that space can be manually set or evenly distributed. See the example below:
\begin{questions}
\question Is it true that \(x^n + y^n = z^n\) if \(x,y,z\) and \(n\) are positive integers?. Explain.
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\question Prove that the real part of all non-trivial zeros of the function \(\zeta(z)\) is \(\frac{1}{2}\)
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\question Compute \[\int_{0}^{\infty} \frac{\sin(x)}{x}\]
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\end{questions}
\clearpage
In this example the command \vspace{\stretch{1}} after each question equally distributes the available space.
The command \clearpage inserts a page break point to continue typing questions in a new page.
If you want to manually assign the space to each question, use the command \vspace{} and in between the braces write the units of space you need. For instance, \vspace{1in} inserts a 1-inch vertical space. Check the documentation about lenghts in LATEX for a list of available units.
If your questions have several parts focused on some subtopics you can use the environments parts, subparts, subsubparts and the corresponding commands \part, \subpart and \subsubpart. See the next example:
\begin{questions}
\question Given the equation \(x^n + y^n = z^n\) for \(x,y,z\) and \(n\) positive
integers.
\begin{parts}
\part For what values of $n$ is the statement in the previous question true?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\part For $n=2$ there's a theorem with a special name. What's that name?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\part What famous mathematician had an elegant proof for this theorem but
there was not enough space in the margin to write it down?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\begin{subparts}
\subpart Who actually proved the theorem?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\subpart How long did actually take to solve this problem?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\end{subparts}
\end{parts}
\question Prove that the real part of all non-trivial zeros of the function
\(\zeta(z)\) is \(\frac{1}{2}\)
...
\end{questions}
The environments parts and subparts provide question-like nested lists. Just like in questions you can set manually the vertical spacing.
There are four environments to create multiple choice questions.
\question Which of these famous physicists invented time?
\begin{oneparchoices}
\choice Stephen Hawking
\choice Albert Einstein
\choice Emmy Noether
\choice This makes no sense
\end{oneparchoices}
\question Which of these famous physicists published a paper on Brownian Motion?
\begin{checkboxes}
\choice Stephen Hawking
\choice Albert Einstein
\choice Emmy Noether
\choice I don't know
\end{checkboxes}
In this example, two different environments are used to list the possible choices for multiple-choice questions.
Another important feature of the exam class is that it provides commands to make grading the exams easier.
You can add a parameter to each \question or \part to print the number of points you attain by correctly answering it
\begin{questions}
\question Given the equation \(x^n + y^n = z^n\) for \(x,y,z\) and \(n\) positive
integers.
\begin{parts}
\part[10] For what values of $n$ is the statement in the previous question true?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\part[10] For $n=2$ there's a theorem with a special name. What's that name?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\part[10] What famous mathematician had an elegant proof for this theorem but there was
not enough space in the margin to write it down?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\end{parts}
\question[20] Compute \[\int_{0}^{\infty} \frac{\sin(x)}{x}\]
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\end{questions}
The additional parameter inside brackets after a question or a part represents the number of points assigned to it. You can change the appearance and the place where the points are printed, see the reference guide for additional commands.
Sometimes it's convenient to include half points as value for parts of a questions. You can do this and then print then the value of the whole question. See the example below:
\documentclass[addpoints]{exam}
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\begin{document}
\begin{questions}
\question Given the equation \(x^n + y^n = z^n\) for \(x,y,z\) and \(n\) positive
integers.
\begin{parts}
\part[5] For what values of $n$ is the statement in the previous question true?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\part[2 \half] For $n=2$ there's a theorem with a special name. What's that name?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\part[2 \half] What famous mathematician had an elegant proof for this theorem but there was
not enough space in the margin to write it down?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\end{parts}
\droptotalpoints
\question[20]...
\end{questions}
The command \half adds half points to a question. The command \droptotalpoints prints the total number of points for the last question. For this last command to work you must add the option [addpoints] to the document class statement.
It is possible to add bonus questions, this extra points will later show up in the grading table. Adding bonus questions and parts is actually as simple as creating regular questions and parts.
\begin{questions}
\question Given the equation \(x^n + y^n = z^n\) for \(x,y,z\) and \(n\) positive
integers.
\begin{parts}
\part[5] For what values of $n$ is the statement in the previous question true?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\part[2 \half] For $n=2$ there's a theorem with a special name. What's that name?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\bonuspart[2 \half] What famous mathematician had an elegant proof for this theorem but there was
not enough space in the margin to write it down?
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\end{parts}
\droptotalpoints
\question[20] Compute \[\int_{0}^{\infty} \frac{\sin(x)}{x}\]
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\bonusquestion[30] Prove that the real part of all non-trivial zeros of the function
\(\zeta(z)\) is \(\frac{1}{2}\)
\vspace{\stretch{1}}
\end{questions}
The commands \bonusquestion and \bonuspart print "(bonus)" next to the point value of the question.
A table that show the points of each question can be printed with a special command.
\begin{center}
\combinedgradetable[h][questions]
\end{center}
There are three commands to print a table of grades:
These commands take two extra parameters, each parameter inside brackets.
There is no support for other languages than English in the exam class. Nevertheless, it's easy to translate the default words for those in your local language. The next snippet shows how to translate the example presented in the previous sections to Spanish.
\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
\usepackage[spanish]{babel}
\pointpoints{punto}{puntos}
\bonuspointpoints{punto extra}{puntos extra}
\totalformat{Pregunta \thequestion: \totalpoints puntos}
\chqword{Pregunta}
\chpgword{Página}
\chpword{Puntos}
\chbpword{Puntos extra}
\chsword{Puntos obtenidos}
\chtword{Total}
...
The rest of the document would be exactly the same shown in previous examples. The commands typed here change the default words in the exam class.
Placing and formatting the points mark for questions
These commands can be typed in the preamble to change the format of the whole document or right before a question to change the format from that question down to the next formatting command or the end of the document.
Changing default names in Grade Tables
The commands depend on the format and the information displayed on the table. The h and v within each command mean horizontal or vertical orientation. If the command is preceded by a b means it changes the format in a bonus table, if the command is preceded by a c means it works on combined tables. For instance, to change the word "Score" in a vertical oriented bonus table for the words "Points Awarded" you should use \bvsword{Points Awarded}.
Below a table with the default values is shown.
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