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Synthetic drugs can be produced using a number of different production techniques, involving a range of different chemical precursor substances. The precursors needed to make amphetamine and methamphetamine overlap significantly, but are distinct from the precursors used to make MDMA. In Europe, and indeed globally, amphetamine is most frequently synthesised from benzyl methyl ketone BMK. To make methamphetamine, although BMK may also be used, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are more common. MDMA is primarily produced from piperonyl methyl ketone PMK , which can also be produced from safrole or oils rich in safrole and piperonal see Figure 6. Several methods can be used to produce each drug, and these may vary depending on precursor availability. All methods also involve the use of additional chemicals and processes that are inherently dangerous. This illustration is intended to provide an indicative schematic overview of selected stages of a production process. It must be noted that alternative methods, chemicals and procedures may be used. As well as being flexible in the use of different precursors and production methods, laboratories can be set up quickly to fulfil a specific order and dismantled rapidly to avoid detection and transported easily to an alternative location. This variability and flexibility challenges efforts to reduce production Figure 6. This situation parallels the cat-and-mouse game observed in the NPS field see Chapter 7 , and several examples are given below. Hazardous waste is generated when synthetic drugs are produced, which takes place on a fairly large scale in the EU, particularly in Belgium and the Netherlands. The chemicals used include solvents acetone, ether, methanol, etc. To illustrate the scale of the phenomenon in Europe, it can be very roughly calculated that the production of the 6. This waste is disposed of in environmentally harmful ways, such as poured down the sink or toilet, although this is a risky option. Containers of the waste product may be dumped in a forest or field, or left in an abandoned apartment, or loaded in stolen vehicles, especially vans and lorry trailers that are sometimes set on fire , as well as buried underground. Alternative elaborate methods include the use of a specially fitted van equipped with barrels, pumps and a hose through which the waste is drained on the road as the vehicle is moving making detection difficult. There are also reports of synthetic drugs production waste being mixed with industrial waste and disposed of at sea. In the Netherlands, where dump sites were found by the authorities in , the average quantity of waste dumped at each site in was kg see Figure 6. Dump sites of waste from synthetic drugs production in the Netherlands and Belgium, — While Europe is a main global production centre of MDMA, the amphetamine and methamphetamine manufactured in Europe are primarily for domestic use, although some is exported, principally to the Middle East, the Far East and Australia. Europe also seems to be an important transit hub for methamphetamine being trafficked from Africa and Iran, again to the Far East and Australia. A large proportion of EU Member States note only very limited or no production of synthetic drugs on their territories. Data available indicate that in Europe MDMA production is centred around the Netherlands and Belgium and, although large-scale amphetamine production also takes place in these countries, amphetamine is also made in Poland, the Baltic states, Bulgaria and, to a lesser extent, Germany and Turkey see Figure 6. Methamphetamine production is concentrated in central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, the Baltic states and occasionally the Netherlands; Bulgaria is also reporting an increase in the number of laboratories detected. Two recent large seizures of synthetic drugs trafficked from Europe to Australia indicate that significant export capacity exists. Production methods depend considerably on the availability of precursors and the know-how of the producers. The Czech Republic accounts for most of the methamphetamine production laboratories in Europe where ephedrine or pseudoephedrine is the precursor used, normally extracted from medicines. It is also worth noting that in Bulgaria, 53 small-scale production facilities were detected between and , with 35 of these dismantled in The synthetic route was reported for 17 of the laboratories found in — This is achieved by connecting several smaller reaction vessels in parallel to increase production output. The use of novel uncontrolled precursors is another innovation. In the Netherlands, Belgium and Germany, the professionalism of production facilities is continuously improving. Some facilities feature a level of automation that allows the producer to leave the site once the synthesis process has been initiated and to return only upon completion of the production cycle. Dedicated tableting sites are also becoming more sophisticated, with brightly coloured pre-mixed excipients supplied ready to be combined with the MDMA and pressed into tablets in high-output industrial machines. The tablets themselves are now increasingly produced with novel shapes, colours and logos, suggesting competition among suppliers and more active targeting of specific groups of users. Some designs are even produced for individual events, for example music festivals see Figure 6. Certain production stages also seem to be increasingly spread over various locations. Several countries, including Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom and Norway, have reported amphetamine base oil from the Netherlands being converted to amphetamine sulphate on their territories, and this activity is associated with risks of fire, explosion, intoxication and waste dumping NCA, c. The Netherlands is one, but probably not the only, source of amphetamine base oil. In , Estonian law enforcement dismantled a laboratory where amphetamine powder was being produced from base oil from Russia Estonia: This hypothesis is supported by analytical data pointing to greater levels of impurities found in MDMA tablets, obtained from a pill-testing programme in EMCDDA, b and the forensic analysis of seized amphetamine Power et al. Dutch and Belgian criminal groups remain the most important producers and traffickers of synthetic drugs in the EU. The large-scale production of synthetic drugs appears to be linked to a small number of interconnected OCGs, which share and exchange knowledge, resources and expertise. Dutch and Belgian criminal organisations possess the most advanced production capabilities. Investigations have shown that prominent criminal groups are involved in the production of several drugs, typically MDMA, amphetamine and, less frequently, methamphetamine. Since , OCGs have been active in the Belgian—Dutch border region, setting up synthetic laboratories, sometimes combined with cannabis cultivation Belgium: Reitox, , quoting Smet et al. Some of the Dutch OCGs producing synthetic drugs have also established themselves as important suppliers on the online market. MDMA is also trafficked in large quantities to these destinations. The involvement of Dutch OCGs is also evident in the production of synthetic drugs in other countries, often making use of the services of local criminals. It has also been noted that the pre-precursor alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile APAAN is often converted into BMK in Poland, because the chemicals needed for this conversion are easily obtained there. In addition, Lithuanian OCGs are suspected of producing methamphetamine for domestic consumption as well as for export to other Member States. Members of Lithuanian OCGs, known to be involved in the production and trafficking of synthetic drugs, travel on a regular basis to Scandinavian countries. It is suspected that they may be involved in the conversion of amphetamine oil into the final product in these countries. Clearly, synthetic drugs cannot be produced without precursors; hence the restriction of access to precursors is critical to efforts to control illicit production. The main precursors are under international control and are listed in Table I of the United Nations Convention; however, the current reality is characterised by the emergence of novel precursors and pre-precursors that challenge the global control regime. Scientific investigation is the key to understanding these developments, and critical information about precursors and production methods comes from forensic profiling of seizures and samples from dismantled production sites. Such forensic methods are an extremely useful, but perhaps underutilised, tool for understanding changes in synthetic drug production. Seizures of BMK decreased steadily from to Despite these developments, there are recent indications that BMK may be re-emerging as a significant precursor in its own right. In the subsequent investigation, links with an amphetamine production site in the Netherlands were established Europol, e. BMK can be made from other chemicals, e. One of the most important developments in the story of BMK was the discovery that it can be produced from alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile APAAN , an innovation that was probably driven by erratic availability of other precursors. Since this development was first identified in , APAAN has become an increasingly important pre-precursor and is imported into Europe primarily from China on some occasions misdeclared as other products or substances and converted into BMK using large quantities of acids, often in dedicated conversion laboratories. European seizures of controlled precursors used in the production of amphetamine and methamphetamine —13 , and of APAAN — The finding of 3-oxophenylbutanamide, a substance that can be readily converted to APAAN, in a Dutch amphetamine laboratory in , indicates that criminal groups have managed to circumvent controls on APAAN. This would appear to be the first example of a substance used to make a synthetic drug pre-precursor. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are produced and traded globally for legitimate ends and therefore are easily targeted for diversion, whereas BMK has few legitimate applications. Global seizures of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in bulk and pharmaceutical preparations peaked at almost 97 tonnes in , when special international operations were mounted INCB, a. Since then, seizures have consistently been significantly lower, with West Africa, Iran and South-East Asia identified as areas of concern. The UN Convention does not require countries to monitor trade in the ephedra plant, although it is the raw material for ephedrine and pseudoephedrine which may constitute a weak point for diversion. Pseudoephedrine and ephedrine are the main precursors used for production of methamphetamine in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany and a number of other EU Member States. They can be extracted from medicines sold over the counter in pharmacies, but also may be trafficked in bulk powder form. Against a background of gradually decreasing amounts of BMK, the amount of bulk ephedrine and pseudoephedrine seized in indicates an increased demand around that time. In , although the amount of ephedrine preparations seized increased, the amount of bulk material decreased significantly, perhaps indicating problems with the supply chain. Ephedrine- and pseudoephedrine-containing medicines are trafficked within Europe to producing countries, particularly the Czech Republic, notably from Poland and Turkey. Bulgarian criminal groups are known to be involved in these trafficking operations, and Bulgarian authorities have been seizing considerable quantities of these medicines. In addition, Vietnamese OCGs also use their networks to procure medicines containing pseudoephedrine for the production of methamphetamine. Associates of Vietnamese OCGs buy the medicines in multiple pharmacies in Member States not typically associated with methamphetamine production and traffic them back to the Czech Republic, on occasion exploiting legitimate business structures, such as pharmacies, for this purpose. Currently, the size and numbers of the packages of medicines containing pseudoephedrine sold in a single transaction are not regulated by EU legislation. Some EU Member States, such as the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic and Germany, have implemented national restrictions on their sale, limiting purchases to small packet sizes and only under the supervision of a pharmacist. However, since sales are not restricted in all Member States, trafficking of such medicines takes place from Member States with less restrictive regimes to countries where methamphetamine is produced. Austria, Belgium, China, the Netherlands and Slovenia. China would appear to be a source country, with two of the three Belgian seizures as well as the Slovenian seizure originating there. Seizures of such chemicals were first reported in , perhaps as a result of the poor availability of safrole in the preceding years. European seizures of controlled precursors used in the production of MDMA — Other ecstasy drugs, e. Other chemicals play a role in the production of amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA depending on the process, and disrupting the supply of these may have an impact on production. Formamide is an important chemical used in the synthesis of amphetamine from BMK by the Leuckart synthesis method. As formamide is to the production of amphetamine, mono methylamine is a key chemical for the manufacture of methamphetamine from BMK and MDMA from PMK as well as some of the new synthetic cathinones. Notably, in , 46 tonnes of mono methylamine was seized in Belgium, in the container port of Antwerp from a ship that had originated in China and routed via Guatemala INCB, a. The Netherlands also reported seizing 1. Another chemical worthy of attention is red phosphorus, which is used in the production of methamphetamine by the method commonly used in so-called kitchen laboratories in the Czech Republic. Recent experience has shown that producers of amphetamine, methamphetamine and MDMA are resourceful and resilient, and likely to innovate and identify additional precursors and production methods if the traditional precursors become unavailable or prohibitively expensive. As will be discussed later, they appear, now also be experimenting with the production of new psychoactive substances. A growing European methamphetamine market or increased demand for synthetic drugs from outside the EU, particularly for MDMA, may prompt OCGs to increase their outputs and is also likely to further stimulate innovation in the production process. The complex month investigation resulted in three arrests. It was estimated that the amount of seized MDMA base was sufficient to manufacture up to 1. The ramifications of the illicit drug market The impact of drug markets on legal business and the economy Drug markets and the link to wider criminal activity and terrorism Strain on and corruption of government institutions Other impacts on society Chapter 2: Drivers of drug market developments Drug supply as a business The influence of globalisation The expanding influence of the internet Action points Chapter 3: Cannabis Introduction Global overview Consumer market for cannabis in Europe Cannabis production Trafficking of cannabis in Europe The retail market for cannabis Action points Chapter 4: Heroin and other opioids Introduction Global overview Consumer market for opioids in Europe Production issues Trafficking and supply Action points Chapter 5: Action points Chapter 8: Drug supply reduction policies and responses Institutional, legal and financial arrangements Operational actions and initiatives References Annex. Production and precursors Synthetic drugs can be produced using a number of different production techniques, involving a range of different chemical precursor substances. Environmental impact Hazardous waste is generated when synthetic drugs are produced, which takes place on a fairly large scale in the EU, particularly in Belgium and the Netherlands. Europe as a global supplier of synthetic drugs In March , the Australian Federal Police arrested a year-old woman in Melbourne and a year- old man in Sydney, seizing kg of MDMA base and dismantling an international organised crime syndicate spanning Australia, the United Kingdom, Spain, Belgium and the Netherlands. The complex month investigation resulted in three arrests in Australia and one in the United Kingdom.

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