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During and following the Korean War, the United States military used regulated prostitution services in South Korean military camptowns. Despite prostitution being illegal since 1948, women in South Korea were the fundamental source of sex services for the U.S. military as well as a component of American and Korean relations.[4] The women in South Korea who served as prostitutes are known as kijichon (기지촌) women, also called as "Korean Military Comfort Women", and were visited by the U.S. military, Korean soldiers and Korean civilians. Kijich'on women were from Korea, Philippines,[5] China, Vietnam, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Indonesia and the Commonwealth of Independent States,[6][7][8] specifically Russia and Kazakhstan.[7][9][10][8]
United States military and prostitution in South Korea
Uniform Code of Military Justice warning poster against prostitution and human trafficking posted by USFK.
Prostitutes servicing members of the U.S. military in South Korea have been known locally under a variety of terms. They have been referred to as "bar girls", "special entertainers", "Korean Military Comfort Women", "comfort women", "hostesses", and "business women".[11]
Yankee princess (Hangul: 양공주; 洋公主; yanggongju; foreigner's whore[12][13][14]) also translated as Western princess, were other common names and literal translations for the prostitutes in the Gijichon, U.S. military Camp Towns[1][15][16] in South Korea.[17][18][19] The term "Western princess" has been commonly used in the press, such as The Dong-a Ilbo for decades.[17] It is also used as a derogatory term when referring to interracial couples, particular those between a white male and Korean female.[20]
Yankee whore (Hangul: 양갈보 Yanggalbo)[12] and Western whore are also common names. The women are also referred to as U.N. madams (Hangul: 유엔마담,[21][22] U.N. madam).[23]
Juicy girls is a common name for Filipina prostitutes.[24]
Until the early 1990s, the term Wianbu (Hangul: 위안부, 慰安妇 "Comfort Women") was often used by South Korean media and officials to refer to prostitutes for the U.S. military,[25][26] but comfort women was also the euphemism used for the sex slaves for the Imperial Japanese Army,[27][28][29] and in order to avoid confusions, the term yanggongju (Yankee princess) replaced wianbu to refer to sexual laborers for the U.S. military.[1][30][31]
The early 1990s also saw the two women's rights movements diverge: on one side the one representing the Cheongsindae (comfort women for the Japanese military), and on the other side the movement representing the Gijichon (Camptown for the US military). Despite many women on both sides being victims of forced labor, those who supported Cheongsidae believed the kijich'on women were willing participants in the system of prostitution and sexually promiscuous.[32]
Now some South Korean media use the term migun wianbu (미군 위안부, 美軍慰安婦 "US comfort women"),[2][3] translating to "American comfort women".
Beginning in 1945, an institutionalized system of prostitution was adopted and permitted by the U.S. military and the Republic of Korea. Despite the United States Forces Korea's policy stating, "Hiring prostitutes is incompatible with our military core values",[33] there is a discrepancy between "practice" and "policy".[34] In Korean society, prostitution is viewed as a "necessary evil".[35] The U.S. military have explained it as military culture that allows for American GIs to blow off steam and prevent homosexual tendencies.[36] Prostitutes for U.S. soldiers were esteemed to be at the bottom of the social hierarchy by South Koreans.[37] They were also lowest status within the hierarchy of prostitution.[38]
In September 1945, United States Armed Forces, led by General John R. Hodge, occupied South Korea after Korea's liberation from Japan. This also included Imperial Japanese comfort stations.[39] These events continued the government-sanctioned prostitution that was established in Korea under Japan's rule.[40] The formation of licensed prostitution by Japan established registration protocols and mandatory STD examinations for Korean sex workers. Once the U.S. military occupied Korea, these examinations were conducted by the Bureau of Public Health and Welfare.[41] In order to protect U.S. soldiers from contracting diseases from prostitutes, the service bars and clubs were relocated near and within military bases.[42] By confining the prostitutes to within a small area, the U.S. military had the power to regulate and monitor the women's activities and health.[43] As the U.S. military government tolerated and regulated prostitution, women's organizations argued for the abolishment of prostitution. In response, the United States passed The Abolishment of Public Prostitution Law in 1947. This abolished licensed prostitution; however, the law increased the proliferation of private prostitution.[44]
The aftermath of the Korean War resulted in extreme poverty and chaos. This produced a large influx in prostitutes as women resorted to sex work in order to support themselves and their family members.[45] The "mass-production" of sex workers was also contributed to the Mutual Defense Treaty which formally granted the U.S. military to occupy and establish military bases in South Korea.[46] Prostitution became a regular and enduring feature of military camptowns.[47][48][49][50][51]
The number of prostitutes for U.S army was probably close to the number of U.S soldiers.[50] The number of U.S. soldiers stationed in South Korea stood at 326,863 in 1953; 225,590 in 1954; 75,328 in 1955; 55,864 in 1960;[52] 45,000 in the 1970s and 42,000 in the 1980s.[50]
In 1953, the total number of prostitutes throughout the population in South Korean was 350,000[47][48][49] according to one government report.[50][51] However according to statistics from the Korean government, the total number of prostitutes in South Korean was 17,349 in 1953.[53] According to the research on the number of checkup for Venereal diseases by professor Lee Young-hoon an economic professor at Seoul National University, the number of prostitutes in the South Korea from 1953 to 1969 was between 26,000 and 39,000.[54] Surveys carried out the 1950s and 1960s suggest 60% of these prostitutes worked near U.S. military camps,[47][48][49][50][51] but even though prostitutes work near U.S. military camps, many of them served only Korean men.[55] A 1984 report suggested that the number of prostitutes around US bases had dropped to less than a third of the total number of prostitutes in the country.[56]
In 1954, Korean government(보건사회복지부) figures give 10,000-30,000 prostitutes servicing the U.N/U.S. military in the South Korea,[57] about 20,000 prostitutes in 1966,[58] reducing to 13,000-14,000 in 1969.[59] reducing to 9,935 in 1977.[60]
The Second Republic viewed prostitution as something of a necessity.[61] Starting in the 1960s, an official organized system was established to provide the U.S. military men with entertainment and leisure that fulfilled their sexual fantasies, such as peep shows and strip clubs.[34] Lawmakers of the National Assembly urged the South Korean government to train a supply of prostitutes for allied soldiers to prevent them from spending their dollars in Japan.[61] Lee Seung-u, the deputy home minister, gave a response to the National Assembly that the government had made some improvements in the "Supply of Prostitutes" for American soldiers.[61] These camptowns existed as a site for the American GIs R&R.[citation needed]
Park Chung-hee, who ruled South Korea during the 1960s and 1970s, and the father of the former president Park Geun-hye, encouraged the sex industry in order to generate revenue, particularly from the U.S. military.[64] Park seized power in the May 16 coup, and immediately enforced two core laws.[65] The first was the prostitution prevention law, which excluded "camp towns" from the governmental crackdown on prostitution; the second was the tourism promotion law, which designated camp towns as special tourism districts.[65]
During the 1960s, camp town prostitution and related businesses generated nearly 25% of the South Korean GNP.[66] In 1962, 20,000 comfort women were registered.[1] The prostitutes attended classes sponsored by their government in English and etiquette to help them sell more effectively.[67] They were praised as "dollar-earning patriots" or "true patriots" by the South Korean government.[36][64][67] In the 1970s one junior high school teacher told his students that "The prostitutes who sell their bodies to the U.S. military are true patriots. Their dollars earned greatly contributes to our national economy. Don't talk behind their back that they are western princesses or U.N. madams."[21]
In 1971, the number of American soldiers was reduced by 18,000 due to the Nixon Doctrine.[68][69] Because of this, South Koreans were more afraid of the North Korean threat and its economic impact.[70] Even so, camp town prostitution had already become an important component of South Korean livelihood.[70] The advocacy group My Sister's Place wrote in 1991 that the American soldiers contributed one billion dollars to the South Korean economy. This was 1% of the South Korean GNP.[71]
Camp town clubs were racially segregated between blacks and whites, and women were classified according to the soldiers' race.[62] The residents near Camp Humphreys discriminated between black and white soldiers.[62] Black soldiers vented their anger against camp town residents.[62] On 1971 July 9, fifty black soldiers provoked a riot against racist discrimination and destroyed some clubs near Camp Humphreys.[62] In turn, residents hunted down black soldiers with sickles.[62] American military police and South Korean police quelled the rioters.[62] Many Korean prostitutes demonstrated prejudiced behavior toward black soldiers by refusing to offer sexual services. Women who fraternized or sold sexual services to blacks were labeled as "black " by Americans and Koreans and faced severe social condemnation and stigmatization by others.[38]
The significant increase in camptown problems and tensions among community relations resulted in a number of policies that sought to improve U.S. military camp areas.[72] On August 1971, the Secretary of Home Affairs Ministry, in cooperation with health authorities, gave orders to each police station to take precautions against sexually transmitted diseases and to instruct prostitutes about them.[68] On December 22, 1971, Park Chung-hee, the President of South Korea, enforced the Base Community Clean-Up Campaign.[62] This also became known as the BCCUC.[73] U.S. military personnel advised the South Korean government that the camp towns were breeding grounds for sexually transmitted infections and places of racist discrimination.[74] The venereal disease ratio per 1,000 American soldiers rapidly increased.[69] Through the collaboration of the United States and the Republic of Korea, these policies were implemented to prevent and correct unfavorable conditions and base-community relations.[72] The United States' military and the BCCUC worked separately on solving issues that pertained to the camptown improvements.[citation needed]
The BCCUC's goal was to create a favorable image of U.S. servicemen in South Korea among Korean nationals.[citation needed] However; in order to do so, the BCCUC needed to fix a "source of embarrassment",[75] the high rates of venereal disease among the American GIs and Korean sex workers. Registering prostitutes, enforcing STD examinations, and improving clinics were ways the BCCUC attempted to control prostitution and reduce the rates of sexually transmitted diseases. The U.S. military's goal was to improve the living conditions for U.S. servicemen and boost troop morale and discipline.[76] By establishing the Subcommittee on Civil Military Relations, the U.S. military began to attend to these goals by focusing on eradicating sexually transmitted diseases and reducing racial discrimination. Other tasks included widening roads, improving sanitation, and making R&R establishments more accessible and inviting were some measures taken to improve the overall camptown environment.[citation needed]
It is argued[specify] that this campaign forced prostitutes to carry the weight of American-Korean relations.[77] The US Military Police Corps and South Korean officials regularly raided prostitutes who were thought to be spreading disease. They would detain those thought to be ill, locking them up under guard in so-called "monkey houses" that had barred windows.[67] The women were forced to take medications that were reported to make them vomit.[67] Women who were certified to be without disease wore tags.[36] The US military issued and required the prostitutes who worked at clubs to carry venereal disease cards and also published a venereal disease guide to inform American soldiers patronizing bars.[78]
The women's movement against military prostitution began in the mid-1980s when Christian women and student movement activists came together to address the military prostitution issue.[4] Ignited by the longstanding effort of Christian women organizations in the 1920s,[citation needed] it became a goal to eradicate prostitution. However, in the 1980s, the movement became focused on the relationship between women, democratization, and US military authoritarian rule. Two groups joined together for this movement: Christian women organizations and student activists. My Sister's Place, also known as Durebang, was the first women's organization founded in 1986 to bring awareness to the kijich'on movement. Not only did they advocate for the abolishment of prostitution and against the exploitation of Korean women, My Sister's Place was also center that provided educational and rehabilitation services for kijich'on women.[4] The effort put into activism against kijich'on prostitution brought nationwide attention and became the subject for many feminist scholars.
During the early 1990s, the prostitutes became a symbol of South Korean anti-American nationalism.[79] In 1992, there were about 18,000 registered and 9,000 unregistered South Korean women around U.S. military bases.[80] Korean government figures for 1992 were about 1,129 prostitutes working around U.S. military bases,[81] and around 926 in 1993 and around 8,000 (mostly foreign women) in 1995.[82][83]
In 1992, Yun Geum-i, a camptown sex worker in Dongducheon, was brutally killed by U.S. servicemen.[84][85][86] Yun was found dead with a bottle stuffed into her vagina and an umbrella into her anus.[87] In August 1993, the U.S. government compensated the victim's family with about US$72,000.[88] However, the murder of a prostitute did not itself spark a national debate about the prerogatives of the U.S. forces; on the other hand, the rape of a twelve-year-old Okinawan school girl in 1995 by three American servicemen, one being a U.S. Navy Seaman, the others U.S. Marines elicited much public outrage and brought wider attention to military-related violence against women.[86]
Since 2004, the majority of prostitutes have been Philippine or Russian women. South Korean sex workers have become less numerous as Filipino and Russian women were a cheaper labor alternative.[17][89] Since the mid-1990s, foreigners make up 80–85% of the women working at clubs near military bases.[90] With the collapse of the Soviet Union, thousands of Russian migrated to Korea to work as entertainers while others forced into prostitution for both American soldiers and Korean civilian men.[10]
Despite Filipino and Russian sex workers being the majority, Korean prostitutes are still present in large numbers. According to the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, South Korean prostitutes numbered about 330,000 in 2002.[91] Most of these are not working near US bases, but operating in the local economy. In 2013, the Ministry estimated that about 500,000 women worked in the national sex industry.[64] The Korean Feminist Association estimates the actual number may exceed one million. According to the estimates up to one-fifth of women between the ages of 15 and 29 have worked in the sex industry.[64]
The South Korean government also admits sex trade accounts for as much as 4 percent of the annual gross domestic product.[64] In August 1999, a Korean club owner in Dongducheon was accused of trafficking in women by bringing more than 1000 Philippine and Russian women into South Korea for U.S. military bases, but a South Korean judge overturned the warrant.[92] In 2000, five foreign women locked in a brothel died in a fire in Gunsan.[15]
In 2002, Fox Television reported casing brothels where trafficked women were allegedly forced to prostitute themselves to American soldiers.[92] U.S. soldiers testified that the club or bar owners buy the women at auctions, therefore the women must earn large sums of money to recover their passports and freedom.[15] In May 2002, U.S. lawmakers asked U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld for an investigation that "If U.S. soldiers are patrolling or frequenting these establishments, the military is in effect helping to line the pockets of human traffickers".[92]
In June 2002, the U.S. Department of Defense pledged to investigate the trafficking allegations.[92] In 2003, the Seoul District Court ruled that three night club owners near Camp Casey must compensate all Filipina women who had been forced into prostitution.[93] The club owners had taken their passports and had kept the women locked up.[94] One Philippine woman who was in captivity kept a diary about her confinement, beating, abortion and starvation.[95] Before the trial began, the International Organization for Migration studied the trafficking of foreign women and reported the result to its headquarters in Geneva.[95] The Philippine Embassy also joined the proceedings, making it the first embassy to take steps on behalf of its nationals.[93]
In 2002, the South Korean government completely discontinued issuing visas to Russian women, so prostitution businesses moved to bring in more Filipinas instead.[96][90] Human traffickers also brought in Russian women through sham marriages.[90] In 2005, Filipina and Russian women accounted for 90 percent of the prostitutes in U.S. military camp towns.[97] In 2005, Hwang Sook-hyang, a club owner in Dongducheon, was sentenced to a 10-month suspended sentence and 160 hours of community service on charges of illegal brothel-keeping.[98] The following civil trial sentenced him to compensate US$5,000 to a Philippine woman who was forced to have sex with U.S. soldiers between February 8 and March 3, 2004.[98] The Philippine woman was recruited by a South Korean company in the Philippines as a nightclub singer in 2004, then she and several Philippine women were locked inside Hwang's club and forced to have sex with U.S. soldiers.[98] The former "juicy bar"
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Korean History Sex