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Alternate titles: Chosŏn, Hanguk, Taehan
By
Ki-baik Lee
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Last Updated:
Aug 5, 2022
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Major Events:
Russo-Japanese War
First Sino-Japanese War
Treaty of Portsmouth
Siege of Busanjin
March First Movement
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Key People:
Syngman Rhee
Choson dynasty
Koryo dynasty
Roy Chapman Andrews
Yi Sun-shin
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Korean Provisional Government
Anglo-Japanese Alliance
Singanhoe
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North Korea
South Korea
Koguryŏ
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Paekche
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Korea , history of the Korean peninsula from prehistoric times to the 1953 armistice ending the Korean War (1950–53). For later developments, see North Korea: History ; and South Korea: History .
Archaeological, linguistic, and legendary sources support the view that the Korean peninsula was settled by Tungusic -speaking peoples who migrated in waves from Manchuria and Siberia . They settled along the coasts and moved up the river valleys. These peoples formed the dominant ethnic foundation of the Korean people and developed the Korean language . There was a close relationship between Korean culture and that of neighbouring peoples during the Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) and the Bronze Age . For example, Korean comb pottery , widely used in the Neolithic Period, is commonly found in northeastern Asia; Korean bronze daggers, belt hooks, and knobbed mirrors also display the traits of bronze tools unearthed elsewhere in the region.
Stone artifacts of the Paleolithic Period have been unearthed at Kulp’o-ri in North Hamgyŏng province (North Korea) and at Sŏkch’ang in South Ch’ungch’ŏng province (South Korea). Of 13 stratified Paleolithic sites, each cultural stratum produced chipped-stone tools of different shapes. Dwelling sites with round fireplaces were discovered there along with carved pebbles.
The Neolithic Period was well established by 3000 bce . A major characteristic was the use of comb pottery, chiefly found at seashore and river-basin sites, where inhabited places and shell mounds also have been discovered. In addition, stone spears and flint arrowheads have been found, as well as bone hooks and stone weights used for fishing. Remains of the Late Neolithic Period include stone plows and sickles, which indicate the beginning of farming. People lived in dugouts , mostly shallow round or rectangular hollows with fireplaces in the centre that may have been covered with thatched roofs. These shelters were huddled together in groups. The size of such villages is yet to be determined, but legends indicate the family members lived together, forming clan communities .
Bronze ware was probably first used about the 8th century bce , though some scholars surmise that it predates the 10th century. As the Bronze Age started, the design of pottery changed to undecorated earthenware. The uncovering of such pottery indicates that Bronze Age Korean people lived on hillsides, in dugouts built slightly aboveground. Half-moon-shaped stone reaping knives and grooved stone axes used for hoeing show that rice farming was practiced, and bronze daggers and bronze arrowheads indicate participation in wars of conquest. Dolmens , used as tombs, which were discovered in southern Manchuria and the Korean peninsula, show the boundary of ancient Korean culture. Since only prominent persons were buried in dolmens, their number and location indicate the existence of many small Bronze Age tribal states that were probably established by powerful people.
The most advanced state was Old Chosŏn , established in the Taedong River basin, in the northern part of the peninsula. According to legend , the son of heaven, Hwanung, descended to earth and married a bear-turned-woman, who bore a son, Tan’gun , the founder of Chosŏn. Perhaps Tan’gun and his descendants ruled a tribal state in which rituals and politics were not separated.
Chosŏn developed into a league of tribes in the area of the Taedong and Liao rivers ( c. 4th century bce ). About this time ironware came to be used. Iron plows and sickles indicate the use of animals in farming and more efficient harvesting methods. Wooden houses were built on the ground, and ondol , a floor-heating device, was developed. The appearance of iron weapons, horse equipment, and coaches indicates that horses and chariots were employed in wars. Wiman (Wei Man in Chinese), said to have defected from China , became ruler of Chosŏn about 194 bce . More likely, he was indigenous to Chosŏn. Wiman’s Chosŏn was overthrown by the Han empire of China and replaced by four Chinese colonies in 108 bce .
Apart from Chosŏn, the region of Korea developed into tribal states. To the north, Puyŏ rose in the Sungari River basin of Manchuria (now northeastern China). Qin , which had emerged south of the Han River in the 2nd century bce , was split into three tribal states—Mahan, Chinhan, and Pyŏnhan. These states formed leagues, or tribal federations, centred on a leading state. The tribal leagues stretched across a wide area from the Sungari basin to the southern Korean peninsula. They evolved into three rival kingdoms— Koguryŏ (Goguryeo), Paekche (Baekje), and Silla . According to legends, Koguryŏ was founded by Chu-mong in 37 bce , Paekche by Onjo in 18 bce , and Silla by Pak Hyŏkkŏse in 57 bce . The actual task of state building , however, was begun for Koguryŏ by King T’aejo (reigned 53–146 ce ), for Paekche by King Koi (reigned 234–286), and for Silla by King Naemul (reigned 356–402).
The Three Kingdoms shared several common characteristics. They evolved into statehood through frequent wars of expansion, centralized military systems were organized, and training institutions ( kyŏngdang in Koguryŏ, hwarangdo in Silla) were developed. The power of the king in each state was strengthened, and hereditary monarchies evolved.
Another common characteristic was the appearance of powerful aristocracies composed of tribal chiefs who moved to the capital. The aristocrats were divided into several social classes with certain privileges as they advanced socially and politically. Silla’s kolp’um (“bone-rank”) system, in which the families of rulers customarily monopolized political power, was typical. Silla had a state deliberative body, the Council of Nobles ( Hwabaek), which made important decisions. The council’s membership consisted of men of chin’gol (“true-bone”) class, who were of the high aristocracy .
The kingdoms all achieved a centralization of power. Each one was divided into administrative units—the largest called pu in Koguryŏ, pang in Paekche, chu in Silla—that controlled many castles. To these provincial units the central government sent officials who made sure that the people, as royal subjects, provided taxes and corvée labour.
The Three Kingdoms developed highly sophisticated cultures . Each compiled its own history, apparently to consolidate the authority of the state. Also noteworthy was the introduction of Buddhism , which was regarded at the time as the state religion for the protection and welfare of the state.
Korean at a glance
Native name : 한국어 [韓國語] (hanguk-eo) - South Korea
조선말 [朝鮮말] (chosŏn-mal) - North Korea
Language family : Koreanic
Number of speakers : c. 81.8 million
Spoken in : South Korea, North Korea, China, USA, Japan, Uzbekistan, and other countries
First written : 7th century AD
Writing systems : Idu [吏讀] and Hyangchal [鄕札] (from 10th century), Gugyeol [口訣] (from 11th century) Hangeul [한글] / Hanja [漢字] (from 15th century)
Status : official language in South Korea, North Korea and Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in northeast China. Recognised minority language in Primorsky Krai in Russian
Korean is spoken by about 81.8 million people mainly in South Korea and North Korea. The relationship between Korean and other languages is not known for sure, though some linguists believe it to be a member of the Altaic family of languages. Grammatically Korean is very similar to Japanese and about 70% of its vocabulary comes from Chinese.
There are about 50.2 million Korean speakers in South Korea, and about 25.7 million in North Korea. Other countries with significant numbers of Korean speakers include China (2.7 milion), the USA (1.1 million), Japan (998,000), Uzbekistan (250,000), Saudi Arabia (173,000), Canada (153,000) and Australia (109,000) [ source ].
Chinese writing has been known in Korea for over 2,000 years. It was used widely during the Chinese occupation of northern Korea from 108 BC to 313 AD. By the 5th century AD, the Koreans were starting to write in Classical Chinese - the earliest known example of this dates from 414 AD. In the 10th and 11th centuries AD they devised three different systems for writing Korean with Chinese characters: Hyangchal (鄕札 / 향찰), Gukyeol (口訣 / 구결) and Idu (吏讀 / 이두). The Gukyeol system first appears in the 11th century, however there is evidence to suggest that it was used from the 7th century AD, or possibly earlier. These systems were similar to those developed in Japan and were probably used as models by the Korean.
The Idu system used a combination of hanja together with special symbols to indicate Korean verb endings and other grammatical markers, and was used to in official and private documents for many centuries. The Hyangchal system used hanja to represent all the sounds of Korean and was used mainly to write poetry. The Gukyeol system used hanja characters to represent the sounds of Korean.
The Koreans borrowed a huge number of Chinese words, gave Korean readings and/or meanings to some of the Chinese characters and also invented about 150 new characters, most of which are rare or used mainly for personal or place names.
The Korean alphabet was invented in 1444 and promulgated it in 1446 during the reign of King Sejong (r.1418-1450), the fourth king of the Joseon Dynasty. The alphabet was originally called Hunmin jeongeum , or "The correct sounds for the instruction of the people", but has also been known as Eonmeun (vulgar script) and Gukmeun (national writing). The modern name for the alphabet, Hangeul , was coined by a Korean linguist called Ju Si-gyeong (1876-1914). In North Korea the alphabet is known as 조선글 (josoen guel).
The shapes of the consonants are based on the shape the mouth made when the corresponding sound is made, and the traditional direction of writing (vertically from right to left) most likely came from Chinese, as did the practice of writing syllables in blocks.
Even after the invention of the Korean alphabet, most Koreans who could write continued to write either in Classical Chinese or in Korean using the Gukyeol or Idu systems. The Korean alphabet was associated with people of low status, i.e. women, children and the uneducated. During the 19th and 20th centuries a mixed writing system combining Chinese characters ( Hanja ) and Hangeul became increasingly popular. Since 1945 however, the importance of Chinese characters in Korean writing has diminished significantly.
Since 1949 hanja have not been used at all in any North Korean publications, with the exception of a few textbooks and specialized books. In the late 1960s the teaching of hanja was reintroduced in North Korean schools however and school children are expected to learn 2,000 characters by the end of high school.
In South Korea school children are expected to learn 1,800 hanja by the end of high school. The proportion of hanja used in Korean texts varies greatly from writer to writer and there is considerable public debate about the role of hanja in Korean writing.
Most modern Korean literature and informal writing is written entirely in hangeul , however academic papers and official documents tend to be written in a mixture of hangeul and hanja .
The double consonants marked with * are pronounced fortis. There is no symbol in IPA to indiciate this.
There are a number different ways to write Korean in the Latin alphabet. The methods shown above are:
See the Korean alphabet pronounced:
Download a Korean alphabet chart in Excel ,
Word
or PDF format.
Modeun Ingan-eun Tae-eonal ttaebuteo Jayuroumyeo Geu Jon-eomgwa Gwonrie Iss-eo Dongdeunghada. Ingan-eun Cheonbujeog-euro Iseong-gwa Yangsim-eul Bu-yeobad-ass-eumyeo Seoro Hyungje-ae-ui Jeongsin-euro Haengdongha-yeo-yahanda.
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