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The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: Cannabis sativa , Cannabis indica , and Cannabis ruderalis ; C. The plant is also known as hemp, although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis has long been used for hemp fibre , hemp seeds and their oils , hemp leaves for use as vegetables and as juice , medicinal purposes , and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber. To satisfy the UN Narcotics Convention , some cannabis strains have been bred to produce minimal levels of tetrahydrocannabinol THC , the principal psychoactive constituent. Some strains have been selectively bred to produce a maximum of THC a cannabinoid , the strength of which is enhanced by curing the fruits. Various compounds, including hashish and hash oil , are extracted from the plant. In the US, 'industrial hemp' is classified by the federal government as cannabis containing no more than 0. This classification was established in the Farm Bill and was refined to include hemp-sourced extracts, cannabinoids, and derivatives in the definition of hemp. Globally, in , 60, kilograms of cannabis were produced legally. Cannabis is an annual , dioecious , flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound or digitate , with serrate leaflets. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant. The leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern that enables persons poorly familiar with the plant to distinguish a cannabis leaf from unrelated species that have confusingly similar leaves see illustration. As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip. However, the serration vein originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the first notch down, but the next notch. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will actually pass tangent to the notch, but often it will pass by at a small distance, and when that happens a spur vein occasionally a pair of such spur veins branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. This venation pattern varies slightly among varieties, but in general it enables one to tell Cannabis leaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, but that requires special expertise and equipment. All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated \\\\\\\\\\\\[15\\\\\\\\\\\\] and the fruit is an achene. Cannabis is predominantly dioecious , \\\\\\\\\\\\[15\\\\\\\\\\\\] \\\\\\\\\\\\[17\\\\\\\\\\\\] having imperfect flowers , with staminate 'male' and pistillate 'female' flowers occurring on separate plants. Many monoecious varieties have also been described, \\\\\\\\\\\\[22\\\\\\\\\\\\] in which individual plants bear both male and female flowers. Subdioecy the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population is widespread. As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops. Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants. Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp , it was first reported by K. Hirata in that an XY sex-determination system is present. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently. Since the s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards see History of Cytogenetics. Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious 'Kentucky' hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination. Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species. Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids, which produce mental and physical effects when consumed. Cannabinoids , terpenoids , and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants. The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the nettle family Urticaceae or mulberry family Moraceae , and later, along with the genus Humulus hops , in a separate family, the hemp family Cannabaceae sensu stricto. Various types of Cannabis have been described, and variously classified as species , subspecies , or varieties : \\\\\\\\\\\\[50\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, some of which produce the 'high' which may be experienced from consuming marijuana. There are identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant, \\\\\\\\\\\\[51\\\\\\\\\\\\] and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial F 1 generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce intermedite amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production. Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species. The genus Cannabis was first classified using the 'modern' system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carl Linnaeus in , who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In , noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis , which he named Cannabis indica Lam. He described C. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam Indo-China assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias , and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations. In , Russian botanist D. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. Within C. Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. However, they did not divide C. In the s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. In , Canadian botanist Ernest Small \\\\\\\\\\\\[68\\\\\\\\\\\\] and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed 'sativa' strains from wide-leafed 'indica' strains. Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA RAPD and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis , primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes. An investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations showed cannabinoid variation in Cannabis germplasm. The patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. In , a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions led to a three-species classification, recognizing C. Despite advanced analytical techniques, much of the cannabis used recreationally is inaccurately classified. It should also improve classification accuracy for cannabis used recreationally. Legalization coupled with Canadian government Health Canada oversight of production and labelling will likely result in more—and more accurate—testing to determine exact strains and content. The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range , aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. Sativa is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. Indica designates shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. Ruderalis is the informal name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and Central Asia. The use of Cannabis as a mind-altering drug has been documented by archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Eurasia and Africa. In , cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In North America, cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown for use in rope, clothing and paper. Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol , caffeine , and tobacco. In the United States alone, it is believed that over million Americans have tried cannabis, with 25 million Americans having used it within the past year. The psychoactive effects of cannabis are known to have a triphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking, introspection and metacognition have been reported among cases of anxiety and paranoia. Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe , bong or vaporizer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug. Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil \\\\\\\\\\\\[9\\\\\\\\\\\\] which, because of appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated. Cannabidiol CBD , which has no psychotropic effects by itself \\\\\\\\\\\\[53\\\\\\\\\\\\] although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine , \\\\\\\\\\\\[93\\\\\\\\\\\\] attenuates, or reduces \\\\\\\\\\\\[94\\\\\\\\\\\\] the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone. According to Delphic analysis by British researchers in , cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. Risk of adverse outcomes from cannabis use may be reduced by implementation of evidence-based education and intervention tools communicated to the public with practical regulation measures. Medical cannabis or medical marijuana refers to the use of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids , in an effort to treat disease or improve symptoms. Short-term use increases both minor and major adverse effects. The term hemp is used to name the durable soft fiber from the Cannabis plant stem stalk. Cannabis sativa cultivars are used for fibers due to their long stems; Sativa varieties may grow more than six metres tall. However, hemp can refer to any industrial or foodstuff product that is not intended for use as a drug. Many countries regulate limits for psychoactive compound THC concentrations in products labeled as hemp. Cannabis for industrial uses is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially as fibre \\\\\\\\\\\\[\\\\\\\\\\\\] ranging from paper , cordage , construction material and textiles in general, to clothing. Hemp is stronger and longer-lasting than cotton. It also is a useful source of foodstuffs hemp milk, hemp seed, hemp oil and biofuels. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from China to Europe and later North America during the last 12, years. The Cannabis plant has a history of medicinal use dating back thousands of years across many cultures. He is thought to have belonged to the Jushi culture recorded in the area centuries later in the Hanshu , Chap 96B. An international team demonstrated that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol , the psychoactive component of cannabis. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. This is the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent. Settlements which date from c. By the 10th century CE, it has been suggested that it was referred to by some in India as 'food of the gods'. One of the earliest to use this plant in medical purposes was Korakkar , one of the 18 Siddhas. In Buddhism , cannabis is generally regarded as an intoxicant and may be a hindrance to development of meditation and clear awareness. In ancient Germanic culture , Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya. In modern times, the Rastafari movement has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament. Rastafarians tend to be among the biggest consumers of modern Cannabis use. Cannabis is frequently used among Sufis \\\\\\\\\\\\[\\\\\\\\\\\\] — the mystical interpretation of Islam that exerts strong influence over local Muslim practices in Bangladesh , India , Indonesia , Turkey , and Pakistan. Cannabis preparations are frequently used at Sufi festivals in those countries. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the plant genus. For therapeutic preparations of the plant, see Medical cannabis. For the psychoactive drug, see Cannabis drug. For the history of the word, see Etymology of cannabis. For other uses, see Cannabis disambiguation. A genus of flowering plants belonging to the hop and hackberry family. Dense raceme of female flowers typical of drug-type varieties of Cannabis. Main article: History of cannabis. Main article: Cannabis drug. Main article: Medical cannabis. Main article: Cannabis industrial uses. Main articles: Cannabis and religion and History of medical cannabis. Main article: Etymology of cannabis. Cannabis portal. The Medicinal Uses of Cannabis and Cannabinoids. Pharmaceutical Press. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 13 February The Leaf Online. GRIN Taxonomy. Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 17 January ElSohly, Mahmoud Marijuana and the Cannabinoids. Humana Press. Retrieved 2 May Lambert, Didier Cannabinoids in Nature and Medicine. Retrieved 21 August Cannabis Basics. Retrieved 27 November World Drug Report Vienna, Austria. Retrieved 1 August Retrieved 17 February Marijuana Botany , 2nd ed. Ron Publishing, California. Canadian Journal of Botany. Annals of Botany. Trends in Plant Science. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Cannabis germplasm resources. In: Ranalli P. Archived from the original on 13 March Retrieved 10 February Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. Journal of Industrial Hemp. Journal of the Society of Agriculture and Forestry. American Journal of Botany. Journal of Applied Genetics. The American Naturalist. Ohio Journal of Science. A key to the early events of sex chromosome evolution'. Plant Physiology. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. Journal of the International Hemp Association. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. Theoretische und Angewandte Genetik. The Plant Cell. The Hemp Report. Genome Biology. Hofmann, and C. The nectar of delight. In: Plants of the Gods 2nd ed. Plant Systematics and Evolution. September Bulletin on Narcotics. Retrieved 13 January June Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior. Fundamental aspects of the species problem in biology. In: The Species Problem in Cannabis , vol. Corpus Information Services, Toronto, Canada, pp. Michaelis, and M. Glossary of Genetics , 5th ed. Springer-Verlag, pp. Plant Science Bulletin. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, pp. Species Plantarum 2 : Salvius, Stockholm. Ray Society, London, U. Paris, France, pp. Clinical Toxicology. Cannabinaceae Lindl. In: Vavilov N. National Research Council Canada. Systematic Botany. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets. A study of systematic wood anatomy in Cannabis. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 24 : 29— Leaf variation among Cannabis species from a controlled garden. Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets 28 : 61— Economic Botany. Random thoughts and queries on the botany of Cannabis. In: Joyce, C. Churchill, London, pp. Crop Science. Forensic Science International. Planta Medica. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. Retrieved 2 October Licensed Producers Canada. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. The Internet Classics Archive. Daniel C. Stevenson, Web Atomics. Retrieved 13 August Archived from the original on 25 March Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. January Archives of General Psychiatry. Archived from the original on 20 May Archived from the original on 16 February August American Journal of Public Health. Pharmacotherapy Review. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. The Lancet. Journal of Ethnopharmacology Review. Archived from the original PDF on 24 May Journal of Experimental Botany. Science Advances. Bibcode : SciA National Geographic. Chapter 1: Cannabis in the Ancient World. Christian vernacular education society. Notion Press. Purnalingam 1 January A Primer of Tamil Literature. Ananda Press. The Journal of Industrial Hemp. International Hemp Association. The Living Torah. New York. A Comprehensive Guide to Cannabis Literature. Greenwood Press. Dread, The Rastafarians of Jamaica. London: Heinemann. Schaffer Library of Drug Policy. Retrieved 13 September Retrieved 20 August Access Unlimited. Retrieved 8 April During the festival the air is heavy with drumbeats, chanting and cannabis smoke. Islamic Reform in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. July Oxford University Press. Deitch, Robert Algora Pub. Earleywine, Mitchell Emmett, David; Graeme Nice What you need to know about cannabis: understanding the facts. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Brill, Leiden. The medicinal uses of cannabis and cannabinoids. Holland, Julie M. Park Street Press. Iversen, Leslie L The science of marijuana 2nd ed. Jenkins, Richard Cannabis and Young People: Reviewing the Evidence. Jessica Kingsley. Lambert, Didier M Mallory, J. Mair Roffman, Roger A; Robert S. Stephens Women and Cannabis: Medicine, Science, and Sociology. Haworth Press. Solowij, Nadia Cannabis and Cognitive Functioning. Cannabis plant. Outline of cannabis Recreational and medical applications Industrial applications. Autoflowering cannabis Cannabis indica ruderalis sativa Difference between C. Adult lifetime use by country Annual use by country. Cannabis political parties List of British politicians who have acknowledged cannabis use List of American politicians who have acknowledged cannabis use. Ker v. California Leary v. United States Gonzales v. Raich Kyllo v. Cannabis portal Category. Links to related articles. Cannabinoid receptor modulators. Agonists: Revosimeline. TRP channel modulators. Dehydroligustilide celery Nicotine tobacco Ruthenium red. Triptolide Tripterygium wilfordii. Ruthenium red. Analgesics N02A , N02B. Meloxicam Piroxicam. Meclofenamic acid Mefenamic acid. Cannabidiol Cannabis Nabilone Nabiximols Tetrahydrocannabinol dronabinol. Carbamazepine Lacosamide Local anesthetics e. Ancient anaesthesia. See also: Recreational drug use. Etomidate Metomidate Propoxate. Glutethimide Methyprylon Pyrithyldione Piperidione. Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors Etoperidone Nefazodone Trazodone Tricyclic antidepressants Amitriptyline Doxepin Trimipramine , etc. Tetracyclic antidepressants Mianserin Mirtazapine , etc. Typical antipsychotics Chlorpromazine Thioridazine , etc. Atypical antipsychotics Olanzapine Quetiapine Risperidone , etc. Trazodone Tricyclic antidepressants Amitriptyline Doxepin Trimipramine , etc. Agomelatine Melatonin Ramelteon Tasimelteon. Almorexant Filorexant Lemborexant Suvorexant. Gabapentin Gabapentin enacarbil Mirogabalin Phenibut Pregabalin. Lists of countries by laws and law enforcement rankings. Legality of euthanasia Homicide by decade Law enforcement killings Legality of suicide Legality of assisted suicide. Deaths Ownership Laws. Censorship by country Book censorship by country Film censorship by country Internet censorship by country Cartographic censorship Political censorship Video gaming censorship by country. Corporate Corporate liability Competition Mergers and acquisitions Monopoly Legality of bitcoin by country or territory. List of international rankings List of top international rankings by country Lists by country. Chinese herbology Indian herbology Islamic herbology Japanese herbology Korean herbology. List of plants used in herbalism. Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read View source View history. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Cannabis L. Cannabis sativa L. Cannabis indica Lam. Cannabis ruderalis Janisch. Activators Triptolide Tripterygium wilfordii.
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Конопля — Википедия РУ
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The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: Cannabis sativa , Cannabis indica , and Cannabis ruderalis ; C. The plant is also known as hemp, although this term is often used to refer only to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis has long been used for hemp fibre , hemp seeds and their oils , hemp leaves for use as vegetables and as juice , medicinal purposes , and as a recreational drug. Industrial hemp products are made from cannabis plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber. To satisfy the UN Narcotics Convention , some cannabis strains have been bred to produce minimal levels of tetrahydrocannabinol THC , the principal psychoactive constituent. Some strains have been selectively bred to produce a maximum of THC a cannabinoid , the strength of which is enhanced by curing the fruits. Various compounds, including hashish and hash oil , are extracted from the plant. In the US, 'industrial hemp' is classified by the federal government as cannabis containing no more than 0. This classification was established in the Farm Bill and was refined to include hemp-sourced extracts, cannabinoids, and derivatives in the definition of hemp. Globally, in , 60, kilograms of cannabis were produced legally. Cannabis is an annual , dioecious , flowering herb. The leaves are palmately compound or digitate , with serrate leaflets. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite leaf arrangement and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant. The leaves have a peculiar and diagnostic venation pattern that enables persons poorly familiar with the plant to distinguish a cannabis leaf from unrelated species that have confusingly similar leaves see illustration. As is common in serrated leaves, each serration has a central vein extending to its tip. However, the serration vein originates from lower down the central vein of the leaflet, typically opposite to the position of, not the first notch down, but the next notch. This means that on its way from the midrib of the leaflet to the point of the serration, the vein serving the tip of the serration passes close by the intervening notch. Sometimes the vein will actually pass tangent to the notch, but often it will pass by at a small distance, and when that happens a spur vein occasionally a pair of such spur veins branches off and joins the leaf margin at the deepest point of the notch. This venation pattern varies slightly among varieties, but in general it enables one to tell Cannabis leaves from superficially similar leaves without difficulty and without special equipment. Tiny samples of Cannabis plants also can be identified with precision by microscopic examination of leaf cells and similar features, but that requires special expertise and equipment. All known strains of Cannabis are wind-pollinated \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[15\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] and the fruit is an achene. Cannabis is predominantly dioecious , \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[15\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[17\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] having imperfect flowers , with staminate 'male' and pistillate 'female' flowers occurring on separate plants. Many monoecious varieties have also been described, \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[22\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] in which individual plants bear both male and female flowers. Subdioecy the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population is widespread. As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, Cannabis exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate licit crops of monoecious hemp from illicit drug crops. Cannabis has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of sex determination among the dioecious plants. Based on studies of sex reversal in hemp , it was first reported by K. Hirata in that an XY sex-determination system is present. The X:A system was first described in Drosophila spp in Since then, many different types of sex determination systems have been discovered, particularly in plants. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently. Since the s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for Cannabis. The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a karyotype. Cannabis was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped; however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards see History of Cytogenetics. Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious 'Kentucky' hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX. It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination. Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species. Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids, which produce mental and physical effects when consumed. Cannabinoids , terpenoids , and other compounds are secreted by glandular trichomes that occur most abundantly on the floral calyxes and bracts of female plants. The genus Cannabis was formerly placed in the nettle family Urticaceae or mulberry family Moraceae , and later, along with the genus Humulus hops , in a separate family, the hemp family Cannabaceae sensu stricto. Various types of Cannabis have been described, and variously classified as species , subspecies , or varieties : \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[50\\\\\\\\\\\\\\]. Cannabis plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, some of which produce the 'high' which may be experienced from consuming marijuana. There are identifiable chemical constituents known to exist in the cannabis plant, \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[51\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] and at least 85 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the plant. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial F 1 generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce intermedite amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production. Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of Cannabis constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a species. The genus Cannabis was first classified using the 'modern' system of taxonomic nomenclature by Carl Linnaeus in , who devised the system still in use for the naming of species. Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In , noted evolutionary biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck published a description of a second species of Cannabis , which he named Cannabis indica Lam. He described C. Additional Cannabis species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam Indo-China assigned the names Cannabis chinensis Delile, and Cannabis gigantea Delile ex Vilmorin. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where Cannabis continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name Cannabis indica was listed in various Pharmacopoeias , and was widely used to designate Cannabis suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations. In , Russian botanist D. Janichevsky concluded that ruderal Cannabis in central Russia is either a variety of C. Within C. Serebriakova and Sizov split the two C. However, they did not divide C. In the s, the taxonomic classification of Cannabis took on added significance in North America. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized Cannabis material may not have been C. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. In , Canadian botanist Ernest Small \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[68\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] and American taxonomist Arthur Cronquist published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of Cannabis with two subspecies: C. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described C. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of phenotypic characters. Schultes and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of Cannabis in the s, and concluded that stable morphological differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, C. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by Cannabis aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed 'sativa' strains from wide-leafed 'indica' strains. Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on evolutionary systematics. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA RAPD and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of Cannabis , primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes. An investigation of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation among Cannabis accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations showed cannabinoid variation in Cannabis germplasm. The patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of C. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to C. In , a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions led to a three-species classification, recognizing C. Despite advanced analytical techniques, much of the cannabis used recreationally is inaccurately classified. It should also improve classification accuracy for cannabis used recreationally. Legalization coupled with Canadian government Health Canada oversight of production and labelling will likely result in more—and more accurate—testing to determine exact strains and content. The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type Cannabis. Cannabis aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range , aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. Sativa is the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. Indica designates shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. Ruderalis is the informal name for the short plants that grow wild in Europe and Central Asia. The use of Cannabis as a mind-altering drug has been documented by archaeological finds in prehistoric societies in Eurasia and Africa. In , cannabis spread to the western hemisphere where Spaniards imported it to Chile for its use as fiber. In North America, cannabis, in the form of hemp, was grown for use in rope, clothing and paper. Cannabis is a popular recreational drug around the world, only behind alcohol , caffeine , and tobacco. In the United States alone, it is believed that over million Americans have tried cannabis, with 25 million Americans having used it within the past year. The psychoactive effects of cannabis are known to have a triphasic nature. Primary psychoactive effects include a state of relaxation, and to a lesser degree, euphoria from its main psychoactive compound, tetrahydrocannabinol. Secondary psychoactive effects, such as a facility for philosophical thinking, introspection and metacognition have been reported among cases of anxiety and paranoia. Normal cognition is restored after approximately three hours for larger doses via a smoking pipe , bong or vaporizer. After 24 hours to a few days, minuscule psychoactive effects may be felt, depending on dosage, frequency and tolerance to the drug. Various forms of the drug cannabis exist, including extracts such as hashish and hash oil \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[9\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] which, because of appearance, are more susceptible to adulterants when left unregulated. Cannabidiol CBD , which has no psychotropic effects by itself \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[53\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] although sometimes showing a small stimulant effect, similar to caffeine , \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[93\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] attenuates, or reduces \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[94\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] the higher anxiety levels caused by THC alone. According to Delphic analysis by British researchers in , cannabis has a lower risk factor for dependence compared to both nicotine and alcohol. Risk of adverse outcomes from cannabis use may be reduced by implementation of evidence-based education and intervention tools communicated to the public with practical regulation measures. Medical cannabis or medical marijuana refers to the use of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids , in an effort to treat disease or improve symptoms. Short-term use increases both minor and major adverse effects. The term hemp is used to name the durable soft fiber from the Cannabis plant stem stalk. Cannabis sativa cultivars are used for fibers due to their long stems; Sativa varieties may grow more than six metres tall. However, hemp can refer to any industrial or foodstuff product that is not intended for use as a drug. Many countries regulate limits for psychoactive compound THC concentrations in products labeled as hemp. Cannabis for industrial uses is valuable in tens of thousands of commercial products, especially as fibre \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] ranging from paper , cordage , construction material and textiles in general, to clothing. Hemp is stronger and longer-lasting than cotton. It also is a useful source of foodstuffs hemp milk, hemp seed, hemp oil and biofuels. Hemp has been used by many civilizations, from China to Europe and later North America during the last 12, years. The Cannabis plant has a history of medicinal use dating back thousands of years across many cultures. He is thought to have belonged to the Jushi culture recorded in the area centuries later in the Hanshu , Chap 96B. An international team demonstrated that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol , the psychoactive component of cannabis. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. This is the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent. Settlements which date from c. By the 10th century CE, it has been suggested that it was referred to by some in India as 'food of the gods'. One of the earliest to use this plant in medical purposes was Korakkar , one of the 18 Siddhas. In Buddhism , cannabis is generally regarded as an intoxicant and may be a hindrance to development of meditation and clear awareness. In ancient Germanic culture , Cannabis was associated with the Norse love goddess, Freya. In modern times, the Rastafari movement has embraced Cannabis as a sacrament. Rastafarians tend to be among the biggest consumers of modern Cannabis use. Cannabis is frequently used among Sufis \\\\\\\\\\\\\\[\\\\\\\\\\\\\\] — the mystical interpretation of Islam that exerts strong influence over local Muslim practices in Bangladesh , India , Indonesia , Turkey , and Pakistan. Cannabis preparations are frequently used at Sufi festivals in those countries. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the plant genus. For therapeutic preparations of the plant, see Medical cannabis. For the psychoactive drug, see Cannabis drug. For the history of the word, see Etymology of cannabis. For other uses, see Cannabis disambiguation. 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Retrieved 13 September Retrieved 20 August Access Unlimited. Retrieved 8 April During the festival the air is heavy with drumbeats, chanting and cannabis smoke. Islamic Reform in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. July Oxford University Press. Deitch, Robert Algora Pub. Earleywine, Mitchell Emmett, David; Graeme Nice What you need to know about cannabis: understanding the facts. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Brill, Leiden. The medicinal uses of cannabis and cannabinoids. Holland, Julie M. Park Street Press. Iversen, Leslie L The science of marijuana 2nd ed. Jenkins, Richard Cannabis and Young People: Reviewing the Evidence. Jessica Kingsley. Lambert, Didier M Mallory, J. Mair Roffman, Roger A; Robert S. Stephens Women and Cannabis: Medicine, Science, and Sociology. Haworth Press. Solowij, Nadia Cannabis and Cognitive Functioning. Cannabis plant. Outline of cannabis Recreational and medical applications Industrial applications. 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