Kirkuk buying blow

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Kirkuk buying blow

Slate homepage. Tweet Share Share Comment. The sun was shining, the hills were green, the sky was blue, and many silver Bs soared overhead. In the morning came the familiar percussive thump of bombing—reports of Iraqi mortar fire into forward peshmerga positions—but at about , the news came that the checkpoints were open. We drove, speeding through the series of undulating hills that insulate Kirkuk from the Kurdish side, rolling pasture and bumpy foothills. This time, we drove much farther than we had gone before, racing and stopping to catch our breath and ask questions of people we saw along the road. How far could we go? What was happening? We saw more on the back of trucks.

Why Iraq and the Kurds are fighting over the city of Kirkuk

Kirkuk buying blow

The name 'Beth Garmai' or 'Beth Garme' may be of Syriac origin which meaning 'the house of bones', \[ 18 \] which is thought to be a reference to bones of slaughtered Achaemenids after a decisive battle \[ which? It is also thought that region was known during the Parthian and Sassanid periods as Garmakan , which means the 'Land of Warmth' or the 'Hot Land'. In Persian 'Garm' means warm; \[ 20 \]. After the 7th century, Muslim writers used the name Kirkheni Syriac for 'citadel' \[ 21 \] to refer to the city. It is suggested that Kirkuk was one of the places occupied by Neanderthals based on archeological findings in the Shanidar Cave settlement. Later the city was occupied around BC by language Isolate speaking Zagros Mountains dwellers who were known as the Gutian people by the Semitic and Sumerian of Mesopotamians. Arraphkha was the capital of the short-lived Guti kingdom Gutium. Arrapkha became a part of the Old Assyrian Empire c. However, by the middle of the 2nd millennium B. In the s they attacked Assyria, sacking Assur , and bringing the cities of Gasur and Arrapkha under their control. Arrapha became part of Assyria proper, whith the Hurrian population driven away from the region. In the 11th and 10th centuries BC the city rose to prominence, becoming an important city in Assyria until the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire — BC. The city briefly came to be part of the short-lived Median Empire before falling to the Achaemenid Empire — BC where it was incorporated into the province of Athura Achaemenid Assyria. During the persecution, about 1, were martyred in Arrapha. Arab Muslims fought the Sassanid empire in the 7th century AD, conquering the region. The city was a part of the Islamic Caliphate until the tenth century. After the divided empire collapsed, the city came under the Abbasids rule once again Suleiman Shah who was the governor of the city until it was taken over by Mongols in After the Mongol invasion, the Ilkhanate was founded in the region and the city became a part of it. The Ilkhanid rule ended when in , the Ardalan took over the city, despite being vassals themselves of the various in Persia centred succeeding Turkic federations in the region, namely that of the Qara Qoyunlu , and the Aq Qoyunlu specifically. After the Battle of Chaldiran in the city came under the Soran Emirate control until it was taken over by Babanids in In it became under direct control of the Ottoman Empire. Abandoning the city after about two weeks, the British returned to Kirkuk a few months later after the Armistice of Mudros. Kirkuk avoided the troubles caused by the Kurdish nationalist Mahmud Barzanji , who quickly attempted to overthrow the British Mandate in Iraq and establish his own fiefdom in Sulaymaniyah. As both Turkey and Great Britain desperately wanted control of the Vilayet of Mosul of which Kirkuk was a part , the Treaty of Lausanne in failed to solve the issue. For this reason, the question of Mosul was sent to the League of Nations. A committee travelled to the area before coming to a final decision: the territory south of the 'Brussels line' belonged to Iraq. Blaze' or father blaze in Kurdish near Kirkuk. The IPC began exports from the Kirkuk oil field in The Company moved its headquarters from Tuz Khormatu to a camp on the outskirts of Kirkuk, which they named Arrapha after the ancient city. Arrapha remains a large neighborhood in Kirkuk to this day. The IPC exercised significant political power in the city and played a central role in Kirkuk's urbanization, initiating housing and development projects in collaboration with Iraqi authorities in the s and s. The presence of the oil industry had an effect on Kirkuk's demographics. The exploitation of Kirkuk's oil, which began around , attracted both Arabs and Kurds to the city in search of work. Kirkuk, which had been a predominantly Iraqi Turkmen city, gradually lost its uniquely Turkmen character. The influx of Kurds into Kirkuk continued through the s. Assyrians comprised 1. Some analysts believe that poor reservoir -management practices during the Saddam Hussein years may have seriously, and even permanently, damaged Kirkuk's oil field. One example showed an estimated 1,,, barrels ,, m 3 of excess fuel oil being reinjected. Other problems include refinery residue and gas-stripped oil. Fuel oil reinjection has increased oil viscosity at Kirkuk making it more difficult and expensive to get the oil out of the ground. Over all, between April and late December there were an estimated attacks on Iraqi energy infrastructures, including the country's 7, km-long pipeline system. In response to these attacks, which cost Iraq billions of US dollars in lost oil-export revenues and repair costs, the US military set up the Task Force Shield to guard Iraq's energy infrastructure and the Kirkuk—Ceyhan Oil Pipeline in particular. In spite of the fact that little damage was done to Iraq's oil fields during the war itself, looting and sabotage after the war ended was highly destructive and accounted for perhaps eighty percent of the total damage. The discovery of vast quantities of oil in the region after World War I provided the impetus for the annexation of the former Ottoman Vilayet of Mosul of which the Kirkuk region was a part , to the Iraqi Kingdom, established in Since then and particularly from onwards, there have been continuous attempts to transform the ethnic make-up of the region. Pipelines from Kirkuk run through Turkey to Ceyhan on the Mediterranean Sea and were one of the two main routes for the export of Iraqi oil under the Oil-for-Food Programme following the Gulf War of There were two parallel lines built in and In the Iraqi government reached an agreement with Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani called the March Agreement of , but the question of whether the oil-rich province of Kirkuk would be included within the Kurdish autonomous region remained unresolved, pending a new census. Despite the signing of the March Agreement, relations between the Kurds and Iraqi government continued to deteriorate due to the unresolved status of Kirkuk, and there were two attempts to assassinate Barzani in In response to Barzani's continued demands during the early s for Kirkuk to be recognized as part of the autonomous region under the terms of the March Agreement, settlement construction for newly arrived Arab families increased drastically as the Ba'athist government implemented Arabization policies to increase the Arab population of Kirkuk. Kurds were forbidden from buying property in Kirkuk, and could sell their properties only to Arabs. They were denied permission to renovate properties in need of maintenance, and poor Shi'a Arab families were paid to move to Kirkuk, while Kurds were paid to move out. Many disputes persisted between the Kurds and Arabs and the conflict escalated into the Second Iraqi—Kurdish War also called the Barzani rebellion. The rebellion collapsed after Iran withdrew its support for Barzani's forces following the Algiers Agreement and the Ba'ath regime intensified Arabization efforts. After Barzani's rebellion was defeated in , the districts of Chemchemal and Kelar , which had been part of Kirkuk, became part of Sulaymaniyah and Kifri became part of Diyala province. Other Arab-populated districts, like Zab , became part of Kirkuk. The expulsions continued after the uprisings. Kurdish villages were razed and thousands of new homes were built, including at least homes for relatives of Iraqi soldiers killed during the Iran-Iraq War. In the Iraqi government, led by then Vice-President Saddam Hussein, nationalized the Iraqi Petroleum Company IPC , after being unable to reach an agreement that would increase oil exports and resolve a longstanding dispute over Law 80 of After reaching an agreement with the Iraqis in , the IPC members were able to retain some of their interests in southern Iraq through the Basra Petroleum Company but had lost Iraq's main oilfields, including the Kirkuk field. In the aftermath of the Iraqi army's defeat, rebellions broke out in Iraq; first in southern Iraq on March 1, and in the northern Kurdish region a few days later. By March 24, Kurdish Peshmerga forces had seized control of Kirkuk, but they were only able to hold it until March 28 when it was reclaimed by Hussein's forces. Arabs families were expelled from the Kurdish region and relocated to Kirkuk, which was still controlled by the Iraqi government. In these circumstances, Hussein's government further intensified the decades long policy of Arabization in Kirkuk, requiring that Kurds, Turkmen and Assyrians fill out 'ethnic identity correction' forms and register as Arabs and many who refused to comply were forcibly relocated north of the Green Line. Kurdish peshmerga fighters assisted in the capture of Kirkuk. Though the peshmerga were allowed to operate even after the Coalition Provisional Authority CPA disbanded and outlawed most of the armed militias in Iraq, the peshmerga were eventually asked to withdraw from Kirkuk and other Kurdish held provinces. Under the supervision of chief executive of Coalition Provisional Authority L. Paul Bremer , a convention was held on 24 May to select the first City Council in the history of this oil-rich, ethnically divided city. Each of the city's four major ethnic groups was invited to send a member delegation from which they would be allowed to select six to sit on the City Council. Another six council members were selected from among delegates to represent independents social groups such as teachers, lawyers, religious leaders and artists. Kirkuk's 30 members council is made up of five blocs of six members each. Four of those blocs are formed along ethnic lines— Kurds , Arabs , Assyrian and Turkmen —and the fifth is made up of independents which meant 10 more council seats given to two main Kurdish Parties by Paul Bremer as token of appreciation for cooperation with American Forces. Turkmen and Arabs complained that the Kurds allegedly hold five of the seats in the independent block. They were also infuriated that their only representative at the council's helm was an assistant mayor whom they considered pro-Kurdish. On 30 June , through a secret direct voting process, with the participation of the widest communities in the province and despite all the political legal security complexities of this process in the country generally and in Kirkuk in particular, Kirkuk witnessed the birth of its first elected Provincial Council. The new Kirkuk Provincial Council started its second turn on 6 March Its inaugural session was dedicated to the introduction of its new members, followed by an oath ceremony supervised by Judge Thahir Hamza Salman, the Head of Kirkuk Appellate Court. Kirkuk is located in a disputed area of Iraq that runs from Sinjar on the Syrian border southeast to Khanaqin and Mandali on the Iranian border. After the Ba'athist regimes demographic and redistricting policies were undone a census and referendum would determine whether Kirkuk would be administered by the KRG or Baghdad. Following the parliamentary election the Kurds signed the Erbil Agreement and backed Nouri al-Maliki on the condition that Article would be implemented. Three churches in Kirkuk were targeted with bombs in August A few days prior, on 11 July , over 40 people were killed in a series of bombings and shootings across Iraq, including in Kirkuk. On 12 June , following the Northern Iraq offensive of the Islamic State , during which it secured control of Tikrit and nearby areas in Syria, the Iraqi army retreated from their positions in Kirkuk and the Peshmerga of the Kurdistan Regional Government then took the city. On 21 October , the Islamic State launched multiple attacks in Kirkuk to divert Iraqi military resources during the Battle of Mosul. Witnesses reported multiple explosions and gun battles in the city, most centered on a government compound. At least 11 workers, including several Iranians, were killed by a suicide bomber at a power plant in nearby Dibis. Under Kurdish control, Turkmen and Arab residents in Kirkuk experienced intimidation, harassment and were forced to leave their homes, in order to increase the Kurdish demographic in Kirkuk and bolster their claims to the city. Multiple Human Rights Watch reports detail the confiscation of Turkmen and Arab families' documents, preventing them from voting, buying property and travelling. Turkmen residents of Kirkuk were detained by Kurdish forces and compelled to leave the city. Kurdish authorities expelled hundreds of Arab families from the city, demolishing their homes in the process. United Nations reports since have documented that Kurdish authorities and Peshmerga militia forces were illegally policing Kirkuk and other disputed areas, and that these militia have abducted Turkmen and Arabs, subjecting them to torture. On 16 October , the Iraqi national army and PMF militia retook control \[ 65 \] of Kirkuk as the Peshmerga forces fled the city without fighting. Kirkuk has been a disputed territory for around eighty years. There has been a long planned referendum to resolve Kirkuk's status under Article of the Iraqi Constitution. And says 'Kirkuk is located to the southeast of the Mosul vilayet in Kurdistan , with a population of 30, Kirkuk's population was predominantly Turkmen in the early 20th century, when Turkish was the most common language spoken at home. The city had a population near 30, in the late s. The Turkmen were majority in the city centre, dominating the political and economic life of the area. The most reliable census concerning the ethnic composition of Kirkuk dates back to The Turkish-speaking Turkmen formed the majority in the city of Kirkuk, whilst the Kurds were the plurality in the governorate. The provincial borders were later altered, the province was renamed al-Ta'mim, and some Kurdish-majority districts were added to Erbil and Sulamaniya provinces. A report by the International Crisis Group points out that figures from the and censuses 'are all considered highly problematic, due to suspicions of regime manipulation' because Iraqi citizens were only allowed to indicate belonging to either the Arab or Kurdish ethnic groups; \[ 77 \] consequently, this skewed the number of other ethnic minorities. The refugees were sent to camps for the displaced or to their places of origin. Some of the displaced described themselves as locals and not as internally displaced. The Tikriti family was the main Arab family in Kirkuk coming from Tikrit in the 17th century. The Al-Ubaid came from just northwest of Mosul when they were forced out of the area by other Arab tribes of that region. They settled in the Hawija district in Kirkuk in during the Ottoman Period. In , around 30 Armenian families resided in the city. The community has also an Armenian Apostolic church. The Seleucid town, like many other Upper Mesopotamian cities had a significant indigenous Assyrian population. Persecution resumed under Yazdegerd II in A. Their situation greatly improved under the Sasanians in the following two centuries after the advent of a national Persian church of free of Byzantine influence, namely Nestorianism. Tradition puts the death toll at 12, among them the patriarch Shemon Bar Sabbae. During the Ottoman period most of Kirkuk's Christians followed the Chaldean Catholic Church whose bishop resided in the Cathedral of the Great Martyrion which dates back to the 5th century. The cathedral was however used as a powder storage and was blown up as the Ottomans retreated in The discovery of oil brought more Christians to Kirkuk, however they were also affected by the Arabization policy of the Baath Party. They are ethnic Assyrians who speak their own dialect of Turkish and religiously follow the Chaldean Catholic Church from Kirkuk who lived in or near the citadel, where they adopted the Turkish language from Iraqi Turkmen, especially during the Ottoman Empire. Their dialect is mutually intelligible with the Iraqi Turkmen dialect. Their official hymns, eulogies, and prayers are in Turkish. Jews had a long history in Kirkuk. Ottoman records show that in there were Jewish homes in Kirkuk, \[ 93 \] and in there were Jews in the city. Jews were generally engaged in commerce and handicraft. Social progress was slow, and it was only in the s that some Jewish students acquired secondary academic education. By almost all of the Jews had left for Israel. Kirkuk is claimed by the Kurdistan Regional Government as its capital, but they do not control the city or province, and Kirkuk is not part of the Kurdistan Region. The last reliable census shows that the Kurds constituted less than a third of Kirkuk's population. The Baban family was a Kurdish family that, in the 18th and 19th centuries, dominated the political life of the province of Sharazor , in present-day Iraqi Kurdistan. The first member of the clan to gain control of the province and its capital, Kirkuk, was Sulayman Beg. Enjoying almost full autonomy, the Baban family established Kirkuk as their capital. It was from this time that Kurds in Iraq began to view Kirkuk as their capital. This persisted even after the Babans moved their administration to the new town of Sulaymaniya, named after the dynasty's founder, in the late 18th century. Iraqi Turkmens view the city as their capital, with the last reliable census showing the city of Kirkuk had a Turkmen majority. They are sparsely dispersed in other neighborhoods. There are many Turkmen villages around Kirkuk. The riverfront, the historical homes, alleyways, the old cemeteries, and the prevailing musical modes of Kirkuk historically belong to the Turkmen. The old names of most of the villages and districts in Kirkuk, as well as the prevalent trades and occupations, trace back to Turkmen families. The Turkmen are believed to be descendants of numerous Turkic migration waves. The earliest arrivals date back to the Umayyads and Abbasid eras, when they arrived as military recruits. Kirkuk remained under the control of the Seljuq Empire for 63 years. However, the largest Turkic migration waves occurred during the four centuries of Ottoman rule — when Turkish migrants from Anatolia were encouraged to settle in the region; \[ \] indeed, it is largely from this period that modern Turkmens claim association with Anatolia and the modern Turkish state. Currently Iraqi Turkmen politicians hold just over 20 percent of seats on Kirkuk's city council, while Turkmen leaders say they make up nearly a third of the city. The archaeological sites of Qal'at Jarmo and Yorgan Tepe are found at the outskirts of the modern city. In , there were reports that the government of Saddam Hussein 'demolished Kirkuk's historic citadel with its mosques and ancient church'. The architectural heritage of Kirkuk sustained serious damage during World War I when some pre-Muslim Assyrian Christian monuments were destroyed and, more recently, during the Iraq War. Simon Jenkins reported in June that 'eighteen ancient shrines have been lost, ten in Kirkuk and the south in the past month alone'. Snow is rare but it fell on 22 February , \[ \] and from 10 to 11 January Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk. Read View source View history. Tools Tools. Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects. Wikimedia Commons Wikivoyage. City in Kirkuk Governorate, Iraq. For other uses, see Kirkuk disambiguation. City in Iraq. Islamic Conquests of Mesopotamia. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. July Learn how and when to remove this message. Entry into the Kingdom of Iraq. Main article: Kirkuk Field. Kurdish autonomy and Arabization. Nationalization of Iraqi Petroleum Company. Iraq War — and return of displaced Kurds. Violence after U. Kurdish control — Iraqi central government control —present. See also: Iraqi—Kurdish conflict. See also: Citadel Christians. Digest of Middle East Studies : 15— ISSN Retrieved 15 November Retrieved 21 October Retrieved 21 December Bahra Magazine. Anadolu Agency in Turkish. Retrieved 26 March Journal of Urban History. SAGE Publications. S2CID Retrieved 8 February Retrieved 14 April Journal of the American Oriental Society. JSTOR Fortress Press. ISBN Carlson et al. Archived from the original on 27 July Retrieved 20 June Archived from the original PDF on 27 September Before the Greeks. Retrieved 3 January Archived from the original on 9 September Retrieved 5 June Retrieved 3 May Edwards, John Boardman, John B. Bury, S. The Cambridge Ancient History. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. Retrieved 14 October Ethno-nationalism in Iraq. The Kurds under the Baath, —, page — Author: David McDowall. Third edition. First published in Third revised and updated edition published in , reprinted in London: I. Tauris , , pages. The central issue was a demographic one. The census Article 14 for disputed areas planned for December had been postponed till the spring by mutual agreement, but when spring came it was unilaterally postponed sine die. Mulla Mustafa accused the government of resettling Arabs in the contested areas, Kirkuk, Khanaqin and Sinjar, and told the government he would not accept the census results if they indicated an Arab majority. He also dismissed the offer of the census, which he said was forged. When the government proposed to apply the census to Kirkuk, Mulla Mustafa refused it, since this was bound to show that the Turkomans, although outnumbered in the governorate as a whole, were still predominant in Kirkuk town. Given the residual animosity after the events of July , the Turkomans were likely to opt for Ba'ati rather than Kurdish rule. The Baath thought the Kurds might be packing disputed areas with Kurds from Iran and Turkey, but the real tensions surfaced over the Faili Kurds, resident in Iraq since Ottoman days and yet without Iraqi citizenship. The government argued they were Iranians, and now determined their fate by the simple expedient of expelling roughly 50, of them from September onwards. Ethno—nationalism in Iraq. The Kurds in Revolutionary Iraq, page Tauris, , pages. By half the population of qo,ooo were Turkoman, rather less than half were Kurds and the balance Arabs, Assyrians and Armenians. Kirkuk and its environs. Kirkuk in the Twentieth Century, page Authors: Liam Anderson, Gareth Stansfield. Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press , , pages. Country Analysis Briefs. Energy Information Administration. Archived from the original on 6 June Kirkuk in the 20th Century'. University of Pennsylvania Press. The Middle East Today. Greenwood Publishing Group. Arabization as Ethnic Cleansing'. Governance in Ethnically Mixed Cities. An Avalanche of Escalating Demands'. Cambridge University Press. The Risings in the Shi'i South and Kurdistan'. Iraq Since From Revolution to Dictatorship. Pluto Press. JSTOR j. Introducing Iraq's Federal System'. International Affairs. Simon and Schuster. Historical Dictionary of the Kurds. Retrieved 11 May BBC News. Retrieved 13 July Al Jazeera America. Al Jazeera. Retrieved 14 June The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January The New Indian Express. Retrieved 24 October Human Rights Watch. Minority Rights Group International. Retrieved 16 October The California Review. Retrieved 25 July The Guardian. Retrieved 17 October Retrieved 8 February — via Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 4 March Archived from the original on 17 April CS Monitor. Retrieved 2 August International Crisis Group. Archived from the original PDF on 8 August Retrieved 19 June In Kirkuk governorate overall, the Kurds were the largest group , , with the Arabs second , and the Turkomans third 83, Subsequent censuses, in , , and , are all considered highly problematic, due to suspicions of regime manipulation. Moreover, the last three reflect the changes wrought by Arabisation, when Iraqis could indicate belonging to one of two ethnicities only: Arab or Kurd. This meant that many Turkomans identified themselves as Arabs the Kurds not being a desirable ethnic group in Saddam Hussein's Iraq , thereby skewing the numbers. Retrieved 3 September Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 24 June Gorgias Press LLC. Retrieved 16 March Gzt in Turkish. Retrieved 21 March Archived from the original on 14 May Akif 6 December Historical Studies Periodical. Archived from the original on 21 January The Kurdish Case'. Middle East Quarterly. Retrieved 12 December Daily Sabah. Middle East Institute. Retrieved 20 August The Honolulu Advertiser. Retrieved 3 March Indian Muslims. Archived from the original on 28 September Daoud Shaker, head of the Iraqi weather bureau told the Kuwait News Agency KUNA snow fell in Baghdad during two hours in the morning on Friday after coming under the effect of two pressure systems, one cold originating from Siberia and the other warm coming from the sea. He said the temperature on Friday was 'below zero in several Iraqi areas' resulting in snowfalls Thursday in several western areas. But the snowfall continued on Friday along with the low temperatures, he added. He predicted that the snowfalls and rain would subside as of Friday night paving the way for subzero temperatures in the next few days that could reach six degrees Celsius below zero specifically at night. He added that the snow that fell on Baghdad has melted. But in Kirkuk and several northern cities including Suleimaniah, snow fell again on Friday along with very low temperatures. According to weather sources, up to four millimeters of snow fell on Kirkuk Friday. World Weather Information Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 28 June Retrieved 13 May Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kirkuk. Districts of Iraq and their capitals. Flag of Iraq. Authority control databases. Germany United States Israel. View of the Kirkuk citadel from outside. Kirkuk Location within Iraq. Iraq \[ 1 \]. Turkish Turkmen. Source 1: WMO precipitation days — \[ \] \[ \]. Source 2: Meteomanz record high since \[ \].

Kirkuk buying blow