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After several months, Naz discovered that her addicted husband was also involved in a large drug trafficking network between Iran and Iraqi Kurdistan. After the shock set in, she tried unsuccessfully to dissuade him from that path and threatened to leave him, even after the birth of their daughter, but it did not work. Overwhelmed by her tragic circumstances, Naz fell into drug abuse, ultimately giving in to the idea of suicide by the end of Drug abuse is no longer limited to a few thousand people in specific cities but has spread to all regions of the country, which have turned into major centers for drug trafficking and abuse, after decades of being mere transit points for drugs. Official reports have disclosed the seizure of tens of tons of drugs and millions of substance packs in the past two years. Furthermore, between and , over 43, individuals have been apprehended on drug-related charges. During a two-year investigation, we contacted approximately 40 sources across Iraq, all of whom confirmed a significant increase in drug trafficking and usage. The situation is particularly concerning as drugs have infiltrated homes, universities, prisons, security agency headquarters, and even high schools. For about a decade, Farshad Anayat smuggled his goods which had gradually and significantly increased in Kurdistan and other regions of Iraq through passages, rough roads, and crossing points. However, it was before the rise in the number of smugglers and drugs entering Iraq, amid security agencies and successive governments being preoccupied with combating terrorist organizations, as well as facing economic and political crises. At that point, the unemployed wife found no other way than to return to live with her widowed mother and began using three doses per day. These locations serve as drug marketing stations. According to Colonel Bilal Sabahi, the Media Director of the Anti-Drug Directorate in the Iraqi Ministry of Interior, security forces arrested 6, individuals involved in drug trafficking and abuse in The number rose to 7, in , and over kilograms of drugs and more than 14 million Captagon pills were seized. Colonel Bilal has reported a significant increase in drug-related arrests in Specifically, 16, suspects were arrested for drug trafficking and promotion, with the majority of them between the ages of 18 and Additionally, suspects were under the age of 18, and female suspects were arrested. The authorities also seized a significant amount of drugs, including kilograms of crystal and 15 million Captagon pills. The security sources that we have contacted agree that heroin, hashish, narcotic pills, and crystal are among the most prevalent types of drugs in Iraqi Kurdistan today. According to the testimonies we have acquired, drugs are distributed through various channels after entering the country, including beauty centers, cafes, universities, and their internal departments, as well as certain populous regions. Bahar Sami a pseudonym , a young Iranian migrant in her twenties, says that she found out at the beginning of that the owner of the beauty center in Erbil where she is employed is using drugs by mixing them with cigarette tobacco. As per reports from local media, Kurdish security forces initiated a crackdown on drug dealers and users in the region in July of The campaign led to the detention of various well-known figures in Erbil, such as an acclaimed Iranian model S. B , an employee of the Kurdish Parliament H. K , and a journalist N. Security investigations and our tracking of the stories of addicts and detainees reveal that drug trafficking has witnessed a spread and diversification in methods of promotion and distribution, which worries officials and citizens. Shokat Haji, a year-old currently serving a sentence in the Sulaymaniyah security directorate, reports that he, like many others, used to place orders for drugs and have them delivered to a designated location. Shokat started using drugs as a child at the age of 14 and was arrested and imprisoned multiple times. However, he would relapse into drug use as soon as he was released due to the absence of addiction treatment centers. He is currently serving his fourth sentence. Honor Ali a pseudonym , a man in his thirties detained in the Sulaymaniyah security prison, suffers from the same problem. His first imprisonment did not deter him, and he relapsed into drug use, returning him to prison. Everyone has abandoned me, my wife and my two children, and the rest of my family have disowned me. After being involved in a smuggling operation, the Iranian national Shahou Ahmad a pseudonym is currently serving a year sentence in the Sulaymaniyah Adult Correctional Facility. He moved to Sulaymaniyah in to work in the trade of pharmaceuticals and medical supplies, but he used it as a facade to carry out his smuggling activities. We met Ahmed 33 years old at the Sulaymaniyah Adult Correctional Facility and he spoke to us after receiving approval from the administration. Moreover, the region is considered a primary gateway for Iranian drug dealers who wish to transport their goods to Europe. According to him, certain smuggled shipments from Iran to Kurdistan can occasionally weigh up to kilograms, and controlling this trade is challenging due to the presence of smugglers, users, and powerful and influential networks that facilitate it all. He also highlighted the presence of specialized laboratories in Iran that process heroin and hashish from Afghanistan which is considered a significant source of drugs globally. A high-ranking officer in the Iraqi Ministry of Interior, speaking on condition of anonymity, confirms that the type of heroin and hashish found in the cities of Kurdistan is the same as that found in central and southern Iraq. They enter through the provinces of Maysan and Basra from Iran. On the other hand, Captagon and other psychoactive substances are widespread in western and central Iraq, entering through Anbar province from Syria. Government reports indicate that Iraq was almost free from drugs before , and the back-then law prescribed the death penalty for anyone caught trafficking or using drugs. However, this situation changed drastically with the breakdown of security at the borders and the hindrance of law enforcement, which allowed drugs to enter the country and their trafficking to flourish. This law included the establishment of an anti-drug directorate within the Ministry of Interior. The law specified the duties of the anti-drug directorate, including combating drugs, psychotropic substances, drug trafficking, and drug abuse crimes, as well as raising awareness of their dangers through collaboration with security agencies, communication with neighboring countries to reduce drug smuggling operations, and apprehending drug traffickers and their associates. If the offender fails to pay the stipulated fine, the punishment is extended for an additional six months. The punishment for drug trafficking is governed by Article 28, which mandates a prison sentence of 5 years to life imprisonment, accompanied by a fine ranging from 10 million dinars equivalent to 6, dollars to 30 million dinars equivalent to 10, dollars. Article 27 includes penalties ranging from life imprisonment to execution for those who import or export drugs. Within the region, those convicted of drug use or trafficking are incarcerated in two types of prisons. The first type falls under the jurisdiction of the Security Directorate Asayish , which in turn is accountable to the Ministry of Interior. The second type is supervised by the Correctional Directorate, which operates under the authority of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. Although correctional prisons have implemented strict security measures, such as using sonar devices to screen visitors and employees upon entry, drug use and trafficking continue to be persistent issues. Various methods are used to smuggle drugs into prisons despite these measures. The Minister of Labor and Social Affairs in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, Qwestan Mohammed, acknowledged, in an interview with the writer of the investigation, the spread of drugs inside prisons and their trafficking in previous years. The Minister also stated that the situation had escalated to the point where drones were being employed to transfer drugs to crime groups between different cell blocks. She disclosed that authorities had intercepted a drone carrying drugs in an attempt to smuggle them into the prison. She emphasized that her ministry had implemented strict measures to put an end to such occurrences. Additionally, she revealed other strange incidents in prisons that demonstrated the influence and power of certain inmates, who had been able to engage in a variety of illegal activities. I am afraid that these big criminal organizations will kidnap my children outside the prison. She also expresses her frustration with the fact that, amidst all these challenges, the prisons in Kurdistan fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, which hinders and burdens their work significantly. She notes that in all countries around the world, including Iraq, prisons fall under the Ministry of Justice, but this is not the case in Kurdistan. He clarified that drugs are often hidden in the genitalia of women to smuggle them into prisons during visits. In some cases, visitors put small amounts of drugs in plastic bags, tie them to thin threads, and swallow them, later they pull them out during visits. The Kurdish community in Iraq was not familiar with drugs before the s, and the number of users was small according to official sources. However, things changed after the uprising and the collapse of security control on the borders. Statistics indicate that drug use cases have gradually increased. In , 30 people were arrested on charges of drug use or trafficking in the Kurdistan region of Iraq. In , the number rose to 88 people. Cases doubled and witnessed significant jumps in when people were arrested. The number reached in , and in the first six months of , people were arrested. A high-ranking officer in the security directorate of Sulaymaniyah has disclosed that individuals were arrested in the province in for drug use and trafficking, including 80 dealers and users, 51 of whom were foreigners. Another officer, who specializes in combating drugs in Erbil, estimates that around 2, suspects were arrested for drug use and trafficking in in the provinces of Erbil and Dohuk. On the other hand, the coordinator of international recommendations in the Kurdistan government, Dindar Zebari, revealed similar numbers and confirmed the conviction of more than 1, dealers and users during the first seven months of According to Zebari, the geographical location of The Region has made it a gateway for drugs across neighboring countries, leading to an increase in the number of addicts. He pointed out that 3, people were arrested in drug-related cases between and According to a reliable source at the Iraqi Ministry of Justice, the number of convicts and detainees in various crimes — excluding the Kurdistan Region- reached around 60, by the end of , including approximately 1, women, distributed across 30 prisons in the country. He warns that this indicates a sobering reality, the cities within the region are swarming with hundreds of drug dealers, which poses a tremendous threat to society. The situation in provinces under the control of the Iraqi government appears to be similar, if not more complicated, which was confirmed by former Iraqi Interior Minister, Osman Al Ghanmi, in a televised interview in October Activists and officials involved in drug-related issues express their concerns about the possibility of winning the war against drugs in Iraq, where local and regional networks intersect. The situation is further complicated by evidence indicating the presence of individuals who operate above the law within smuggling and trafficking networks. In addition, there are accusations against influential people in political parties and militias, who are accused of either facilitating the smuggling operations or obstructing the arrest of major drug dealers. In early , former Iraqi President Barham Salih granted a presidential pardon to Jawad Luay Jawad Al-Yasiri, who had been convicted of drug trafficking and is the son of a high-ranking government official. The pardon also applied to several other convicts who had been sentenced by the Karkh Court. The decision was made based on a recommendation from the General Secretariat of the Council of Ministers. Their release from prison, made possible by the special pardon, elicited a strong reaction across the country, as it highlighted the issue of criminals being able to evade punishment, especially in serious crimes like drug trafficking, as long as they had the protection of the ruling authorities. And stories of impunity continue to repeat themselves. In , during the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic, the Iraqi intelligence agencies arrested, after a complex operation, one of the major drug dealers in Nineveh province D. According to a high-ranking source in the Nineveh police, the arrested dealer is Kurdish from Duhok province and holds a high rank in one of the Kurdish security agencies. He used to smuggle drugs into Nineveh in coordination with Arab dealers who promote them. After approximately two years of imprisonment, security sources reported that the detained Kurdish merchant had been released due to a significant deal, the details of which were not disclosed. A video obtained by the journalist who conducted the investigation, which was not verified for its recording date and location, shows the officer-merchant being warmly welcomed by a group of individuals. Another senior officer in the Nineveh police, who refused to reveal his identity, confirmed their monitoring of numerous drug dealers who are working to bring drugs into the cities of the province. On the other hand, another senior officer who oversaw many drug trafficking cases in Baghdad explains that smugglers have resorted to non-traditional methods of smuggling, such as drones that can carry between 20 and 30 kilograms, and some use gliders for smuggling. He noted that one of them was shot down in Basra in June , carrying one million Captagon pills. In Iraqi Kurdistan, an administrative official at a border point with Iran told us that smuggling is active in mountainous areas where porters cross the border on foot for hours over rugged mountain peaks and valleys, some carrying their goods inside electrical appliances or household items. Smuggling operations are not limited to the eastern borders. The Security Council of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq announced in July the seizure of kilograms of drugs in Erbil, which were coming from Kirkuk province and were in the form of pills hidden inside juice-making devices. Hawkar 45 years old , who is serving a 5-year prison sentence in the Sulaymaniyah Adult Correctional Facility, says during an interview with the writer of the investigation inside the prison that drugs have become widespread among universities, student dorms, and even security forces. He had left the Rania district to work in construction in Sulaymaniyah, where he became addicted to drugs. He was arrested and imprisoned, then released only to return to drug use and be arrested again. Delawar says that he used to consume between one gram and one and a half grams of drugs in each dose. You find yourself in a vicious circle with no way out. The prices of drugs vary based on their types. He was arrested by Kurdish security forces in January for possessing grams of drugs and was sentenced to 16 years in prison. As they become addicted, they sell them at higher prices. Kah Rdi criticizes the lack of any treatment centers for addicts despite the presence of tens of thousands of people hoping to receive help and warns that their absence exacerbates the crisis even more. He also notes that the region is still far from having any comprehensive plan to combat the spread of drugs, as the number of users increases month after month, drowning more and more young people and their families in failure, despair, and addiction. Investigative Reports From a border crossing to a center… Iraqi Kurdistan is in the heart of the drug storm April 9, Cross-Border Toxic Substances For about a decade, Farshad Anayat smuggled his goods which had gradually and significantly increased in Kurdistan and other regions of Iraq through passages, rough roads, and crossing points. A flood of drugs and thousands of detainees According to Colonel Bilal Sabahi, the Media Director of the Anti-Drug Directorate in the Iraqi Ministry of Interior, security forces arrested 6, individuals involved in drug trafficking and abuse in Non-deterrent laws Government reports indicate that Iraq was almost free from drugs before , and the back-then law prescribed the death penalty for anyone caught trafficking or using drugs. From a crossing point to a center The Kurdish community in Iraq was not familiar with drugs before the s, and the number of users was small according to official sources. Investigative Reports. Kwashi factories and refineries in Dohuk pollute the air and the land.

Stories from Islamic Republic of Iran

Kermanshah buying Ecstasy

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. There is cultural support for opium in Iran, and also there is cultural tolerance for tobacco smoking, especially as water pipe smoking, in Iranian families. Alcohol, opium, and cannabis are the most frequently used illicit drugs, but there are new emerging problems with anabolic steroids, ecstasy, and stimulant substances, such as crystal methamphetamine. There is serious drug abuse problem among Iranian high school students. It could be due to role-modeling by parents — mainly fathers — and also cultural tolerance of some substances. Early onset of tobacco smoking, with a daily use rate between 4. Use of all types of drugs, except prescription drugs, is more prevalent among boys. Alcohol is the most frequently abused substance, with a lifetime rate of at least 9. Lifetime rates of opiate use — mostly opium — were between 1. As drug abuse is a frequent problem among Iranian high school students, it is necessary to design and implement drug prevention programs to protect them. Such programs, including life skills training and drug education, have been operating in recent years for Iranian students from kindergarten to the university level. There is a long history of opium use in Iran. Opium use as a recreational substance has been recorded for more than four centuries. One of the first scientific descriptions of opium use in Iran was written by Dr. Jacob Eduard Polak — , a Jewish Austrian physician who worked in Iran between and 1 among teachers of the first Iranian medical school. It is not forbidden and every Iranian who can afford its cost uses it daily. Adolescence is a particularly vulnerable period for initiation of drug use 2 , and younger age at first drug use significantly increases the likelihood of more serious drug problems 3. Iran has the highest rate of abuse of opiates in the world 6 , 7. In recent years, there has been increased use of heroin, crystal methamphetamine, and ecstasy. There is no direct standard survey for finding the prevalence of drug abuse in Iran. But there are surveys that help in estimating the drug use situation. The last nationwide survey of drug use in Iran, carried out in , was a rapid situational assessment RSA This study is based on interviews with drug abusers in treatment centers, the justice department system and prisons, as well as interviews with key informants. It is not a household survey and, therefore, interpretation of the data should consider their limitations. Unpublished data from this survey 8 showed that there are 1. Although traditional drugs of abuse in Iran are opium and cannabis, in recent years there has been more use of heroin, crystal methamphetamine, and ecstasy. In RSA , it is shown that The use of drugs by parents is a particular concern, as parental drug use is a risk factor for offspring Evidence has shown that family environment and mental health are inter-related in opiate addicts Spousal 13 and child abuse 14 are more frequent in drug abusers than the general population. Regarding age in this study, Main substances of use were opium all forms in Comparing these results with a previous RSA in , which found that the main substance was opium at This is the first time in the history of drug use in Iran that heroin use is more prevalent than opium use. Heroin is usually smoked, sniffed, or injected. In RSA , the usual way of drug use for Although the average Iranian drug-dependent person is likely to be married and employed, the average Iranian injection drug user is more likely to be unemployed and single or divorced RSA has shown that, compared with previous reports, there has been a decrease in cannabis use and an increase in crystal methamphetamine use as the main substance used among the total population of drug abusers. Crystal methamphetamine was the main substance in 3. In this article, we review published papers in international and domestic journals as well as existing unpublished data describing substance use by young people in Iran. There are four main studies on drug abuse in high school students in different parts of the country. Drug abuse in these studies is considered to be the use of any illicit substances, including alcohol, cannabis, opiates opium and heroin , ecstasy, and methamphetamine. Information about tobacco use is also included in these studies. In , Ziaaddini et al. This city is near the eastern border with Pakistan and Afghanistan and has a traditionally high rate of drug abuse. In this study Kerman Study , the rate for lifetime use of drugs in high school students was Also In another study, conducted in in Zanjan, a city in the northwest of the country Zanjan study , lifetime prevalence of drug abuse in high school students was The rate was significantly higher among boys than girls In this study, poor school performance, depression, and cigarette-smoking parents were associated with higher rates of drug abuse. Ahamdi and Hasani 21 in Shiraz — a large city located in the southern part of the country Shiraz study — have found rates of lifetime use and current use of drugs to be significantly higher among boys than among girls. In this study, pleasure seeking, modeling, and tension release were the most common reasons for drug use. In a study in Tabriz — another city in the northeast Tabriz study — among male high school students, There are two usual ways of using tobacco among Iranian adolescents: cigarette smoking and a water pipe. The latter has been a common practice for centuries, mostly in the Middle East, but its use appears to be widespread among high school students even in the United States 23 and European countries In the Zanjan study 20 , a history of water pipe tobacco smoking in high school students was twice that of cigarette smoking In Iran, like in most of the Middle Eastern and Islamic countries, there are traditional taboos and social behavioral limitations for girls. For example, in the Zanjan study 20 , lifetime history of cigarette smoking was more than three times higher for boys than for girls, but the sex difference for water pipe smoking was less see Table 1. It seems that smoking a water pipe is more tolerable in families compared with cigarettes, and its use does not bring the same degree of negative stigma for girls. One study in Lebanon has also shown a sex difference in cigarette smoking but not for water pipe smoking Smoking a water pipe is a socially acceptable practice for adolescents in Iran 20 , other Middle East countries 25 — 28 , and in western countries, even for athletes, who are traditionally considered at low risk for tobacco use 29 , and it appears acceptable for both boys and girls. Regular daily cigarette smoking was more prevalent than water pipe smoking The prevalence of daily smoking ranged from 4. There is also a study of middle school students grade 7 , with a mean age of 13 years, which shows 7. Although the purchasing of cigarettes is not allowed in Iran for people under the age of 18, clearly for many youth, the age of smoking onset is much younger. Age of smoking onset was Also there are studies that have shown an association between smoking and mental 35 and physical disorders In Iran, alcohol is considered an illicit drug and its use is banned for all age groups. Unfortunately this situation does not prevent its use among adolescents, and, in fact, alcohol is the most common illicit substance among Iranian high school students, especially among boys 20 — Two studies in Kerman have shown lifetime prevalences for alcohol between In RSA , in a cross-country study, the mean age of first alcohol use was In a study among high-risk grade 11students in Tehran, The rate of alcohol use was similar to the rate for tobacco smoking and much more than the rate for any other substance. In the Zanjan study, the lifetime history of alcohol use was 9. The rate was significantly lower in girls 3. In this study, 16 boys out of 6. Although alcohol consumption is illegal in Iran it is banned by Islam and unlike many other countries there is no alcohol advertising 39 to promote use by youth , it is customary to have alcohol at various parties and ceremonies. In the Kerman study, It seems that there is a tolerant atmosphere in these situations even for adolescents regarding alcohol use. In the Kerman study, among those students with lifetime experience of alcohol use, Whereas there is no comparative study between Muslims and other religious groups in Iran, some studies in Iran have shown that there is more tolerance for alcohol consumption among Christians than among Muslims Iran has a long border with Afghanistan, the biggest producer of opium in the world, and opium use has a centuries-old tradition in Iran Although there is negative stigma for heroin use, there is a traditional supporting culture for opium. In a household survey of people aged 15 and over, As Agahi and Spencer reported nearly three decades ago, the problem for Iranian adolescents is exposure to role models of drug abuse; such models are more likely to be an adult family member than an adolescent peer, a reversal of what is usually found in western countries Modeling is the second most common reason for drug use in the offspring of opium dependents Lifetime prevalence of opium and heroin use was 1. In this study, none of the high school students were current opiate users Ahmadi et al. In Kerman study, one fourth to one third of high school students who had lifetime experience of opiate use — opium or heroin — were daily users of it Although there is no cross-country study of youth drug use, it seems that the southeastern parts of the country, which border Pakistan and Afghanistan, show larger numbers of opioid users. In all studies, the rate of heroin use was far lower than the rate of opium use Table 2. Studies on the epidemiology of drug use in Iran show that all drugs are used more often by males than females 19 — 22 , The situation is the same for high school students. The Zanjan study reported that the lifetime prevalences of opium and heroin use in male students were 3. None of female students had a lifetime history of opium or heroin use. In the Kerman study, among high school students, lifetime history of opium use rates were The numbers for heroin use were 5. Cannabis is used in Iran in both the form of grass marijuana and hashish. Studies have reported lifetime history of cannabis use at 0. The Zanjan study showed a 2. The rate was 5. In the Kerman study, lifetime history of cannabis use was 8. Prevalence of daily cannabis use in this study was reported as 3. There is a lack of studies on methamphetamine or cocaine. Although the four most common substances used by high school students in Iran are tobacco, alcohol, cannabis and opium 19 — 22 , there have been some studies in recent years about other substances. Rates of lifetime and daily use of prescription sedatives mostly benzodiazepines were 2. In the Zanjan study, lifetime use rates for prescription narcotic drugs, including codeine and tramadol, were 9. Codeine is usually supplied and consumed as codeine-containing pain-killer tablets that mostly also contain acetaminophen. Both acetaminophen-codeine tablets and tramadol tablets are prescription drugs, but some pharmacies sell them without a prescription. Actually there are reports that acetaminophen-codeine tablets are one of the best selling drugs in Iran. Significant rates of use of prescription drugs by girls, who report very low rates of illicit drug use, suggest that prescription drug use is less stigmatized than illicit drug use. It is also an important concern that, like in other countries 47 , many users of these tablets are also abusing other substances. In the Zanjan study, the rate of lifetime and daily use of anabolic steroids was 6. Lifetime anabolic use was Shakeri et al. Sepehri et al. The prevalence of ecstasy use among 15—year-old people in Tehran was In another study on ecstasy use among high school students in Lahijan in the north of Iran, 2. The rate in boys 3. There is also one study that has shown that a large number of ecstasy users were high school or university students There are a large number of studies that have shown that various mental health disorders can be concordant with drug abuse problems. Zanganeh 53 stated that social isolation and lower socio-economic status can be associated with psychiatric disorders, including drug abuse. Emami et al. The frequency of such problems was higher in girls than in boys. Alcohol and drug use can be associated with high risk sexual behavior 55 and other risk-taking behaviors in Iranian adolescents 56 and can be a risk factor for HIV transmission. There is evidence that substance-using adolescents in Iran 19 and other countries 57 have greater psychological dysfunction. Childhood and family adverse events are also associated with more drug abuse problems in Iran and other countries 58 — Drug abuse is also reported in association with impulsivity 30 and delinquent antisocial behaviors in Iran 22 as well as other countries 61 — Adolescent drug use in Iran shows co-morbidity with mental disorders, especially depression and anxiety disorders. The Zanjan study, using the Beck depression inventory, found that Pathological anxiety was also more prevalent in high school students with a history of drug abuse, but it did not reach the significance threshold. Drug abuse also has been shown to be associated with academic problems There are very important drug problems among youth in Iran. As drug abuse and addiction are biopsychosocial problems, we should keep in mind relevant cultural factors and co-morbidities. It seems that parents and schools fail to play a significant role in primary prevention in Iran, and families in which the father is a drug user pose a very significant risk factor. Nearly half of drug-using university students in one study had been familiar with drugs since their adolescence Considering this fact and also the rule that earlier first drug use leads to more drug problems later in life, it is necessary to initiate preventive programs as early as possible. Adaptive motivational structure is important 67 , and it has been shown that behavioral control can help Iranian adolescents to resist drugs There are youth and family counseling programs in Iran that can be effective for behavior problems and, as DeJong et al. Although in Iran there are not yet comprehensive family-based or school-based drug prevention programs as in developed countries, some recent programs appear promising. Such programs include drug related life-skills training in kindergartens and primary schools, life skills training and drug education packages in high schools and universities, and parenting skills training programs promoting family bonding. Papers of particular interest, published within the annual period of review, have been highlighted as:. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Curr Opin Psychiatry. Published in final edited form as: Curr Opin Psychiatry. Find articles by Saeed Momtazi. Find articles by Richard A Rawson. PMC Copyright notice. The publisher's version of this article is available at Curr Opin Psychiatry. Cigarette Water pipe Girls Open in a new tab. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Ziaaddini et al. Mohammadpoorasl et al. Nakhaee et al. Momtazi et al.

Kermanshah buying Ecstasy