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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Background: To understand the relapse process, it is required to notice the clients learned behaviors and environmental contexts. We aimed to explore and describe relapse experiences of Iranian drug users. Methods: This is a grounded theory study and twenty two participants were selected using purposive sampling, snowball and theoretical sampling. After obtaining written informed consent, data gathering was done by means of in-depth semi-structured interviews. According to Strauss and Corbin three phases of open coding, axial coding and selection coding were done for qualitative analysis and continuous comparison. During the research period Guba and Lincoln criteria were used to be reassured of the accuracy and rigor of the study findings. Results: The main categories of this study were craving and conflict, family stress and psychological indicators of relapse that emerged in three phases including recovery, tension and pre-relapse. High anxiety, withdrawal, rationalization and lying were the most common symptoms. Conclusion: Family reactions and social conditions play a key role in relapse. Relapse process is an active and multidimensional event in which the clients experience a psychosocial status continuum from recovery to relapse. Most psychological problems are seen in the tension phase. Currently, drug addiction is a great personal and social problem affecting the body and mind of users and also the health of the society, causing cultural, political, economical, and social problems. Despite advances in the treatment of alcoholism and other addictions, frequent relapses and re-use of alcohol and other substances is a serious problem in the treatment of these patients. Many variables related to psychosocial stressors and emotional status of clients such as depression, anxiety and emotional crisis are effective in treatment periods and relapse process and are key factors in relapse. Craving is a factor that most drug-dependent users experience. Behavioral change is a complex process influenced by the treatment process and individual factors associated with the client. This article is part of a larger project being performed using the qualitative method and the grounded theory approach. This kind of study is aimed to obtain rich data and illuminate social processes in human relations. According to the purpose of the study which was understanding the relapse experience in drug abusers, 17 drug addicts having at least one relapse history and being well informed about relapse experience were chosen using purposive and snowball sampling. The first participant was selected by purposive sampling and other participants were recruited using the snowball sampling method. The study began by purposeful sampling and continued by theoretical sampling with maximal diversity. After explaining the purpose of the study to the participants and getting written informed consent, interviews were done and the conversations were tape recorded. Maximum variation regarding sex, age, job, kind of opiate, marital status was considered in sample selection. At the beginning of the interview, for warm-up, the participants were asked to introduce themselves and explain about the reasons of re-using the drugs after treatment and talk about the signs and problems of the time period between treatment to relapse and whether they had enough opportunity to figure out the events of that period. During the interview, according to the answers, the questions were focused on psychosocial outcomes in the time period between treatment and relapse. Subsequent decisions regarding who would be interviewed were made as data collection and analysis progressed. Therefore, three family members and two physicians, as substance-withdrawal therapists, were included in this study according to theoretical sampling. A total of 25 interviews were conducted with the following participants: 17 drug users, 2 family members, and 3 physicians. Three participants were interviewed twice. All interviews were tape-recorded. After obtaining approval, the participants were informed orally regarding the purpose of the study and signed the written informed consent form. All participants were told that they could withdraw from the study at any time they desired. They were assured of confidentiality of tape records and transcriptions. Analysis of data began at the first interview. All of the interviews were done in 7 private and 3 governmental drug abuse treatment clinics in Kermanshah. All of clinics were supervised by Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences. The interviews were done in mother language by one of the researchers who had complete knowledge about the mother language of the participants. Every interview lasted for minutes. Finally, data saturation was achieved after 25 interviews 22 participants. Data collection began in February and continued until July Data analysis and data collection began simultaneously. Corbin and Strauss continuous comparison method was used for data analysis In this method, data collection and analysis are performed simultaneously. This process began with open coding phase. During the axial coding phase, the codes in each interview were then compared with those in each other interview to create broader categories that linked codes across the interview. The aim of categorizing was to reduce the number of codes which were similar or dissimilar into broader higher order categories. The categories were compared with one another. During comparison, some of the categories were integrated and sometimes a new class was formed inside the previous ones. This continuous comparison was done carefully until the axial coding was assigned. At the same time of data analysis, field description was done and coded in this manner. Finally selective coding defined the relationship of the classes. During the interviews and data analysis, the researcher wrote down any notes, hypotheses or relationships he found useful in research analysis. The emerging categories were analyzed by comparing and contrasting them with each other to ensure that they were exclusive and covered the variation in the data. In selective coding phase the core variable was emerged. In this article, we present part of the findings in the axial coding phase. During the study, the researcher third author had long engagement with data which reassured the participants and helped them to have appropriate understanding of the study atmosphere. Transferability was considered by having team including authors and coauthors consensus decisions regarding the categories. Dependability was strengthened by writing memos. Credibility was checked by long engagement and member-check procedure. Then inappropriate codes which were not showing their point of view were changed. The long term experience of one of the researchers third author in substance-withdrawal centers as a counselor was useful in confirming codes and interpretations. During sampling, maximum variation was considered to ensure credibility. Interviewing the family members and physicians increased data validity. Peer check and member check was done for increasing the credibility of the study. For confirming transferability, the data was given to some drug abusers who were not as the study participants to read the data. They confirmed data harmonization. Findings regarding demographic characteristics showed that the drug abusers 17 participants of 22 had 3 to 11 years of substance use experience. In this study we found out psychological problems of the clients during the relapse process since recovery to relapse was a major factor that could affect other intervening factors for re-using drug. We found three major phases in this regard, namely quitting opiates or recovery, tension, and pre-relapse. The major categories during the quitting recovery phase consisted of somatic and psychological consequences. In tension phase craving and strive for being accepted and self-deficit emerged. In the pre-relapse phase, there were major indicators for returning to drugs. Moreover, two major factors including family challenges tension and attitude and confrontation with the same past situations throughout the process had the key roles to return drug use again. During the recovery phase a time period of two weeks after the end of drug withdrawal the client experienced restlessness, behavioral changes and urgent need for respect as well as confronting the past similar situations and family challenges which finally led to anxiety and psychological tensions. Behavioral changes included extreme eagerness to meet addicted friends, aimless street wandering, insomnia, excessive smoking, and changes in lifestyle, diminished activity, and feelings of loneliness. I had no sense and hated everyone. I continuously imagined that I have drugs shots and felt high. After a month I felt better, but I had cravings, especially when I was alone or when I had a quarrel with my family. We provided everything he wanted. He was continuously feeling lonely and was angry, selfish and demanded too much. He asked for some cookies and when we bought it for him, he ate one pound at a time. His behavior with his mother was awful and he wanted different things on and on. He asked for money to go shopping, but I was afraid to give him too much. When I gave him a little, he shouted and said: it is not much and…. I was at home and did not go out, but I was preoccupied about the time I was using drug, its pleasure, and the way I used it and even the first time I was pleased by using heroin. So I was angry and struggled to seek excuses to be mad at everyone, get out and use drug, then blame others for that. In general, I felt so bad and even worse when I was angry or had cravings. I fought myself over and over to control the cravings. In this phase, psychological symptoms of the clients were mostly anxiety and mood and behavioral changes. But the severity of psychological problems in this step was very different. After ending the recovery phase, the client faced too many problems as a result of abstinence. The role of family challenges and social conditions were important. In this phase, the category of craving and strive for being accepted was emerged. Confronting inappropriate family and society attitudes played a key role in relapse. They were repeatedly saying that I am lying and I am still using drugs but not in front of them. Wherever I was going they followed me and did not leave me alone, even in the kitchen or bathroom they were controlling me on and on. So I was so mad at them and fought them all. Sometimes I hit myself and I was whispering that it is better to use drugs again because it is the same and they do not believe me. There was not even a piece of bread at home and I had to provide everything by myself. Neighbors, they all knew me as an addict. So I had to go back to committing offences to make a living. I had to sell drugs and so there was no drug use obstacle for me. I was searching help but nobody helped me. I needed monetary and psychological help. An addict is sick and needs nursing and caring, I was sick too, but nobody supported me. In this period, leaving the client alone with no support by the family and community causes multiple problems for clients which affect their life. When the hangover ended and I wanted to use again I hated everyone, but when I was abstinent, I tried not to do these things, but sometimes I had to. I did not have anything and for days I had nothing to do. I did these things because I had some experience, but it was so hard. Another problem of the clients was drug using cravings and mental challenges which made them anxious. The clients in this phase are continuously struggling with themselves to use drugs or not. So they are always depressed, anxious and of have low tolerance. Their decision abilities were disturbed and were deeply dependent on others. I kept fighting myself to control the cravings. You have no idea, when somebody quits, he likes to use drugs again but imagining past situations made me refuse drug re-use. Even when being alone, they like to experience that time. They are ready to use, but because of fear of addiction situations like community rejection or fear of being left alone by family members, they fear use drugs again. In this phase, the client is psychologically and severely disturbed. Personal challenges, especially cravings and self-deficit played the major roles in this phase. Because of severe cravings and ineffective support of the family and also placement in the same past situations, self-deficit increased and the client entered relapse markers and showed somatic and psychological symptoms. The client used rationalization frequently, his anxiety increased, his concentration declined, and he became emotionally unstable, irritable, and angered easily. He tried to be alone, preoccupied with the sweet days of drug abuse. He was not in good relations with his family members and wished to meet addicted friends. In this phase, the client has dual feelings: before using drugs, he experiences high anxiety, irritability, and show-off, demanding and sometimes pleading behaviors toward family. Right after using drugs, he feels highly relaxed and ignores others. His anxiety is diminished and he barely reacts to environmental stimuli. After the ecstatic phase passes, he feels guilt, self-hatred, isolation, and depression. You like to be calm again, so you look forward to hearing from your friends offering you drugs or find some reasons to use them and then blame others for forcing you to use drugs again. When you are a just-quitted junkie, you look like an exploding bomb, you will easily be tempted and you want to get relaxed as soon as possible. In addition, there are some fears of the family and the future. I had nothing, no investment. At first it was good, then I regretted it and an hour later I hated myself. I hit and punished myself for using drugs. I felt I was nobody, was cursing myself. Then I came home angry and sad. My mother was at home and told me that I have to be ashamed, slapped me in the face and told me that I should be ashamed for using drugs again. I denied it, I was so angry and shouting, but she had figured it out. I went to my room and closed the door. In this phase, the client fears being rejected by family members or even the treatment team, so he lies and denies using drugs. I was smoking on and on but I felt anxious, I liked to go and imagined that now they are enjoying. Eventually I took four pills of diazepam and fell asleep. Three days later, I met my friends at the neighborhood. I had called it a day and was tired, so I liked to meet them and waited for hours to visit them. I refused, but I wanted to go. I kept watching them. An addict is sick and needs nursing, I was sick too, but nobody supported me. When the atmosphere is ready like this, he uses easily and blames others, while he wants it himself, he wants to be calm and without anxiety. I was such a person too, but they made me be like this. We notice little lapses in the tests. There are somatic signs and social problems like contact with other addicts. He has some declines in job, attends his job late, has is absent and even lies to the therapist. He swears a lot for his deeds and words and even swears the lie. In the study, we achieved different somatic, familial, social, psychological, and sexual outcomes. In this study, the main purpose was to explain the relapse process in drug users which was assessed in a ground theory study. This article is part of the larger study which examines the psychological signs, problems and outcomes of the drug users in the time period of abstinence to relapse. In this study, we found that the clients experience three phases of recovery, tension and pre-relapse since abstinence to relapse. These three phases have interactions and have no clear and separate boundaries. It was clear that the clients experience psychological, behavioral, and social problems during the treatment period until relapse. The results of the study showed that psychological problems are experienced in the global category of abstinence, family challenges, personal challenges and confronting the same past situations. Different factors and themes of abstinence happened in the recovery phase. In this phase, the clients experienced irritability, behavioral changes and need to be respected, anxiety, nagging, demanding behavior and the need to be accepted were more frequent. Unpleasant emotions, conflicts and social pressure were the predisposing factors in the relapse process. In the category of family challenges, family tensions and their inappropriate attitudes were important. The clients experienced being questioned frequently, failure in love, family quarrels, lack of confidence, and not being trusted, which all exerted much pressure on them. Chaney and colleagues found that interpersonal interactions such as environmental situations, negative emotional status, and direct and indirect social pressure are among the factors experienced in the relapse process and are effective in re-using the drugs. During the tension phase, craving and concerns about being accepted were the key factors of relapse. Mental conflicts and rationalization are experienced by the clients in this phase. The client is anxious for different reasons. Self-deficit and self-management play major roles in this phase. The tolerance level of the client decreases and he constantly seeks his own comfort and imagines it all in drug using. So, clients rationalize to be relaxed and find some excuses to use drugs. Ramo found out that the clients experienced interpersonal conflicts in the relapse process. The results showed that in the pre-relapse phase, the client experiences conflicting reactions. When he uses drugs, his anxiety diminishes and he is relaxed, but later as he becomes aware of himself, he feels guilty and regretful and hates himself. Talkativeness and isolation are two different reactions of the clients. Ramo found that during the relapse process, the clients experience negative feelings and emotions and lose the ability of distinguishing social norms the self-effectiveness decreases. Wallace also found that in the relapse process, the clients show personality problems and some troubles like painful emotional situation, boredom, loneliness, depression, frustration, and anger which all affect their behavior. Relapse is an active and multidimensional process in which the clients experience a psychological status spectrum from recovery to relapse. The clients experience multiple psychological, social and behavioral problems which can affect the relapse process and lead to drug re-use or prevention. In addition, self-deficit and self-management are two basic opposing mechanisms, and by increasing cravings and personal conflicts, the mechanism deviates to self-deficit and rationalization eventually leading to re-using the drugs. We conclude that addicts show a dual emotional behavior in the pre-relapse phase and feel frustrated and need social and familial support in order to prevent relapse and help durability of recovery. This work is a part of doctorial dissertation in nursing done by Amir Jalali. We would like to thank all the patients, colleagues and professors who participated in this study. Also, the researchers are grateful to the Deputy for Research and Technology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, for financial support. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Find articles by Naiemeh Seyedfatemi. Find articles by Hamid Peyrovi. Find articles by Amir Jalali. Open in a new tab. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Median, range. High school diploma. College or above. Opiate use years. The frequency of relapse.
Table 1 ; Drug Use duration · More than five years, 59 () ; Kind of drugs use, Opiate, (52) ; Kind of drugs use · Heroin, () ; Kind of.
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Shiraz E-Med J. Phenomenon of substance use is presently one of the major health problems worldwide 1. This phenomenon can directly or indirectly overshadow the quality of life of people in short and long term 2. Drug dependence inflicts severely deep physical and psychological damages, and also causes social harm, such as increased rates of divorce, crime, and unemployment 3. World Health Organization WHO identifies illegal drugs as a critical issue threatening and challenging human life seriously 1 , 4. The pattern of substance use varies widely across developed and developing countries and also varies across different regions of the country. Developing countries face considerable drug-related social problems because of a high proportion of youth population 5. Iran is a country with the highest proportion of drug abusers in the world, where substance use is the third biggest problem following inflation and unemployment 6 , 7. Although no precise data on the number of substance users is available in Iran, one to two million has been estimated, according to official reports and field studies. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-fifth edition DSM-V criteria for substance dependence includes several specifiers. Dependence was diagnosed when three or more dependence criteria were met. The remission category can also be used for patients receiving agonist therapy such as methadone maintenance or for those living in a controlled, drug-free environment 9. Results of previous researches showed that drug abuse has no single cause and there are different individual, social, and economic factors that contribute to the tendency towards this behavior Considering the effects of age on addiction epidemiology and etiology, and given the lack of examination of patterns and effects of age on drug dependence in Iran, this study was performed with the aim of determining the epidemiology of age of substance use initiation, duration of substance use, and age of seeking treatment as well as studying the effects of these factors on the success of drug quitting in methadone maintenance treatment MMT centers of western Iran. Hopefully, results from the present study will help initiation of useful steps towards framing and providing appropriate plans to prevent this predicament in the society. This cross-sectional study was performed on drug-dependent clients, whose records were available during year and who underwent treatment after they had referred to Kermanshah province MMT centers. Kermanshah is a western province of Iran, and is bordered by Iraq to the west. It has a population of more than people. After obtaining the required permits from the provincial MMT center, a list of all centers was made. There are 95 active MMT centers in the province. Forty-two centers were randomly selected. Data were collected by addiction ward psychologists using interviews with all clients referring to selected centers. In the present study, age of onset of substance use was the age at which an individual began to use drugs such as alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana for the first time. Drug dependence was assessed based on DSM-V. The most important feature of drug dependence set forth in DSM is a set of cognitive, behavioral, and psychological indications signifying that despite considerable problems caused by using illegal drugs, a person may continue using them. There exists a pattern of repeated use of drugs, which usually results in appearance of tolerance, and quit and forced substance use-related behaviors. In addition, the age at which a person begins seeking treatment to quit substance use, whether by medications or by non-medication methods, is considered as age of quitting. If the test is positive, this will be regarded as a failed treatment. The main inclusion criterion was treatment with methadone with at least one year and the exclusion criterion was not providing a urine test to check failed treatment. Based on illegal drug classification, there are seven different categories, as follows:. Depressants: Those drugs, which slow down brain reactions such as heroin, opium, and morphine;. Stimulants: Those drugs, which make the nervous system work faster. Cocaine, amphetamine, methylene dioxyamphetamine, methamphetamine Ice , Ritalin, and crack smoking form of cocaine are examples of this category. Although crack falls in the group of stimulants, the crack available on the Iranian market is considered an opioid stimulant drug because of having synthetic opioid compositions;. Somnolent and Tranquillizers: These drugs are typically used to mitigate anxiety and to treat insomnia, such as benzodiazepines, including diazepam, chlordiazepoxide, lorazepam, flurazepam, etc. The second group of these sedative hypnotic drugs include barbiturates, such as phenobarbital, sec barbital, and amobarbital;. Opioids: This group is divided to two subgroups; a natural drugs like opium, opium extraction, and paregoric; and b synthetic drugs like morphine and similar opioids Methadone, Laam, Propoxyphene, Daroon ; and. Description of data was done by using frequency, mean, and standard deviation. T-test and Chi-square tests were used to compare means and ratios, respectively. Moreover, logistic regression test was used to examine reasons why treatments failed. The study population consisted of subjects, of whom Mean age of substance use initiation was Drug dependence in males and females occurred on average 3. In summary, mean age of drug dependence was The proportion of treatment failure was The mean age of subjects seeking treatment was Age of substance use initiation, drug dependence, injection, and seeking treatment in western Iran. As shown in Table 1 , there is no significant difference with respect to the types of substance used, age of substance use initiation, and age of seeking treatment. The univariate model showed that the chance of treatment failure in males was 1. However, after adjusting the age of substance use initiation and duration of substance use, no significant difference was observed between males and females in terms of the chance of treatment failure, 1. Univariate analysis showed a significant relationship between older age of substance use initiation and higher chance of treatment failure. The findings indicated that older individuals seeking treatment had a higher chance of treatment failure that is the chance of treatment failure in subjects above 55 years was 2. In summary, with increasing one year of seeking treatment the chance of treatment failure increased by 1. Addiction is an important public health challenge threatening modern society, which, as a social problem, has always motivated individuals, organizations, and associations. The growing number of individuals addicted to illegal drugs has turned this problem to a national crisis in Iran. Something remarkable and shocking in this regard is the age of substance use initiation and of drug dependence. For this reason, prevalence of substance use can be reduced by implementing preventive programs for this age group, especially for individuals younger than 20 years old. Unfortunately, age of substance use initiation has been decreasing recently so that, according to results of a research evaluating drug abuse in Iran, mean age of substance use initiation decreased by three years during to 7 , Rostami et al. This declining trend of age of substance use initiation is not limited to Iran and according to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime report, mean age of substance users was In other words, age of substance use initiation was globally decreased by four years during the recent ten years 14 , Therefore, solving any one of the mentioned problems can be an effective step in dealing with the declining age of substance use initiation 16 , Although the number of females using illegal drugs has increased recently in Iran and other countries, substance abuse and dependence is still considered as a gender-dependent illness in Iran Previous evidence reported gender differences in smoking and alcohol consumption worldwide Age of substance use initiation among females is five years older than that of males, which is in agreement with the results of studies carried out in this field 20 , For various reasons, such as physiological, psychological, and physical characteristics, females become dependent on illegal drugs more quickly, which is in agreement with results of similar studies 22 , The older age of substance use initiation was associated with the higher chance of treatment failure. Similar studies had different results so that the chance of treatment failure was more than 10 years with older persons in a cohort study and with young persons in a month follow-up However, the results from most studies indicate that chance of treatment failure increased as individuals grew older. On average, substance users embark on seeking treatment nine years after starting to use drugs which indicates that duration of substance use had greater effect on treatment failure compared to the age of seeking treatment, which is in agreement with similar studies. In the US, the most commonly used illegal drugs are marijuana, cocaine, and heroin, respectively Limitations of the present research include not recording information, documents un-readability, and missing data in the subject's records. To solve this problem, the researchers attempted to collect data and information from staff and psychologists of MMT centers in addition to using statistical methods. As with other studies on addiction, the most important limitation of the present research was the changing patterns of drug abuse from the onset of substance use till the time when addicts try to seek treatment. Initially, drug abuse begins with using drugs, such as opium and hashish, eventually, ending up with using several types of drugs simultaneously. Most of these patients suffer from multi-substance abuse. Therefore, the age of substance use initiation can be related with each type of these substances. Also, drugs are used initially by simple modes, such as smoking and oral mode, ending up with modes of injection, as duration of substance use increases. For this reason, types and modes of substance use cannot be identified correctly. In order to reduce the study bias, the researchers considered the type of drug mostly used by an individual as the substance used. Another important limitation was self-reported data, the results of which should be warily interpreted. This research had several strengths, including use of a large sample, selection of several MMT centers, and collection of information with help of people specialized in the field of drug abuse prevention. In Iran, issue of substance use is of more importance because this country has a high percentage of young population and shared borders with the largest narcotic drugs producing countries. On one hand, age of substance use initiation is very low and has a declining trend and, on the other hand, with decreased age of substance use initiation, drug dependence probably increases. Wodak A, Cooney A. Geneva: World Health Organization; Self-reported prevalence of dependence of MDMA compared to cocaine, mephedrone and ketamine among a sample of recreational poly-drug users. Int J Drug Policy. Persuasive communication and drug abuse prevention. London and New York: Routledge; Int J Infect Dis. Black C. It will never happen to me: Growing up with addiction as youngsters, adolescents, adults. Center City, Minnesota, U. S: Hazelden Publishing; Loeffler AG. The indigenisation of allopathic medicine in Iran. Anthropol Mid East. Mokri A. Brief overview of the status of drug abuse in Iran. Arch Iran Med. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report Vienna, Austria: United Nations Publication; DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: Recommendations and rationale. Am J Psychiatry. HIV and risk environment for injecting drug users: The past, present, and future. Endogenous endophthalmitis associated with intravenous drug abuse. Invest Ophthalmol Visual Sci. Ziaaddini H, Ziaaddini MR. The household survey of drug abuse in Kerman, Iran. J Appl Sci. Gender and geographical inequalities in fatal drug overdose in Iran: A province-level study in and Spat Spatiotemporal Epidemiol. Brady JE, Li G. Trends in alcohol and other drugs detected in fatally injured drivers in the United States, Am J Epidemiol. International standards on drug use prevention: the future of drug use prevention world-wide. Boles SM, Miotto K. Substance abuse and violence: A review of the literature. Aggress Violent Behav. Impulsive action and impulsive choice across substance and behavioral addictions: Cause or consequence? Addict Behav. Moghanibashi-Mansourieh A, Deilamizade A. The state of data collection on addiction in Iran. The correlation between gender inequalities and their health related factors in world countries: A global cross-sectional study. Epidemiol Res Int. From first drug use to drug dependence; developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Substance use initiation: The role of simultaneous polysubstance use. Drug Alcohol Rev. Sex, drugs, and violence: An analysis of women in drug court. Drug Alcohol Depend. Alcohol and drug misuse, abuse, and dependence in women veterans. Epidemiol Rev. Special section on relapse prevention: Substance abuse relapse in a ten-year prospective follow-up of clients with mental and substance use disorders. Psychiatr Serv. Cuijpers P. Effective ingredients of school-based drug prevention programs. A systematic review. J Ilam Univ Med Sci. Prescription opioid abuse in the UK. Br J Clin Pharmacol. Results from the national survey on drug use and health: Summary of national findings. SMA We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience. They also allow us to analyze user behavior in order to constantly improve the website for you. Navigate to Shiraz E-Medical Journal. Shiraz E-Medical Journal: Vol. Abstract Objectives: The aim of this study is to determine the epidemiology of substance use in terms of age of initiation, duration of use and age of patients when they seek the treatment. Methods: This cross-sectional study was performed on drug-dependent individuals subjects , who had referred to methadone maintenance treatment MMT centers of Kermanshah province, western Iran, during year The information was gathered by psychologists working in substance use wards, who interviewed clients seeking treatment. Results: Mean age of substance use initiation was On average, males and females became dependent on illegal drugs only after 3. The chance of treatment failure for persons over 55 years was 2. Generally, chance of treatment failure increased by 1. Background Phenomenon of substance use is presently one of the major health problems worldwide 1. Methods 2. Study Design This cross-sectional study was performed on drug-dependent clients, whose records were available during year and who underwent treatment after they had referred to Kermanshah province MMT centers. Data Collection and Definition of Variables After obtaining the required permits from the provincial MMT center, a list of all centers was made. Based on illegal drug classification, there are seven different categories, as follows: 1. Depressants: Those drugs, which slow down brain reactions such as heroin, opium, and morphine; 2. Although crack falls in the group of stimulants, the crack available on the Iranian market is considered an opioid stimulant drug because of having synthetic opioid compositions; 3. Inhalants: Those drugs, which are used by inhaling, such as marijuana and glue; 5. The second group of these sedative hypnotic drugs include barbiturates, such as phenobarbital, sec barbital, and amobarbital; 6. Opioids: This group is divided to two subgroups; a natural drugs like opium, opium extraction, and paregoric; and b synthetic drugs like morphine and similar opioids Methadone, Laam, Propoxyphene, Daroon ; and 7. Alcohol 2. Data Analysis Description of data was done by using frequency, mean, and standard deviation. Results The study population consisted of subjects, of whom Age of substance use initiation, drug dependence, injection, and seeking treatment in western Iran Figure 1. Table 1. Table 2. Variable No. References 1. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4. Leave a comment here:. Cookie Setting We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience.
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Hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV and HCV) are two common infections among people who inject drugs (PWID) and more than 60% of new human.
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2 A Genealogy of Drugs Politics: Opiates under the Pahlavi. Prohibition \\[of opium\\] was motivated by prestige reasons. At a time of modernization, which in most.
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