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Amphetamine Validity Reliability Factor Analysis. Illegal use of psychotropic drugs has become a great problem around the world 1. According to the statistics from the united nations office on drugs and crime in , the abuse of amphetamine compounds has been an increasing epidemic. According to this report, the number of amphetamine compound-producer laboratories has increased from 12, in to 14, in This paper reported that 35 million people all over the world use amphetamine compounds regularly. Iran was introduced as a country with an increasing rate of abuse and production of amphetamine compounds 2. Illicit drug use in Iran and associated problems have been present for a long time in the Iranian society 3. Historically, in Iran recreational drug abuse dates back to the 17th century 4. Iran is currently facing a transition from traditional drugs to the industrial production of illicit drugs, including amphetamines. The abuse of these materials in previous decades was negligible, yet is increasing in the recent years 5. According to a recent study using the rapid situation assessment RSA of drug abuse in Iran, the frequency of amphetamine use makes up 5. Other studies have reported that amphetamine use occurs in Reasons for the abuse of drugs may be the low price of industrial materials, easy access, and the increasing price of traditional opiates Investigations have shown that parallel to the increasing abuse of such drugs, there has been an increase in the demand for treatment A questionnaire with proper validity and reliability is an important part of a good treatment plan. Withdrawal symptoms occur in individuals with an established history of drug use. McGregor et al. Observed symptoms of amphetamine withdrawal could include fatigue, drowsiness, depression, aggression, disorder, excitability, pain, lack of enjoyment, and reduction in concentration 14 - Unfortunately, most studies investigating amphetamine withdrawal processes lack adequate sample size or include participants, who are experiencing simultaneous drug withdrawal interactions potentially creating confounding results. Additionally, most studies lack the use of a validated scale measure to evaluate withdrawal symptoms 15 , Several questionnaires are currently available to measure symptoms of amphetamine withdrawal, including the amphetamine withdrawal questionnaire AWQ 20 , the severity of amphetamine dependence questionnaire SAMDQ 21 , and the amphetamine cessation symptoms assessment ACSA The new measure purports to assess withdrawal symptoms more accurately, and its validity and reliability have been proved in assessment and evaluation of amphetamine abuse withdrawal symptoms The present study was done to determine the reliability and validity of Persian Version of amphetamine cessation symptom assessment ACSA questionnaire in patients of residential medical center in Alborz province of Iran. A cross sectional study was completed using the ACSA The ACSA evaluates 3 factors over 16 questions, including anxiety and mood 11 , fatigue 3 , and amphetamine craving 2. The Persian-version of the ACSA questionnaire was translated from English to Persian language and proofed using the backward-forward translation method To explore the face validity of the questionnaire, 10 experts provided direction for the writing, translating, and arrangement of questions. A group discussion was facilitated through individual sessions where amphetamine withdrawal symptoms were discussed and the questionnaire was provided. While the translated ACSA contributed to minor changes in wording, no question was deleted or added. Patients in residential medical center of the Alborz province of Iran, provided treatment for amphetamine withdrawal, were enrolled in this study. All participants in the study were male. The inclusion criteria in this study required participants to be male being at least 15 years old, having been diagnosed with amphetamine dependence as listed in the DSM-IV, and having provided positive urine test for amphetamine compounds. Also, Psychotic patients, patients with acute medical diseases requiring psychotherapy, and patients, who were hospitalized for issues related to opiates use were excluded from this study. One-hundred and six individuals that received care at the residential medical center of Alborz province were enrolled in the study through the convenience sampling method. An informed consent form was completed by all participants. Exploratory factor analysis and principal component analysis were used to assess construct validity. The questionnaire was given to experts working in the field of amphetamine abuse. A content validity index CVI was used to assess the content validity of the questionnaire. In the first method, a CVI index was calculated for the overall questionnaire. The number of questions identified by each expert as completely related or greatly related was divided by all questions and the result was translated to a percentage: the average of all summed expert percentages was then calculated. In the second method, CVI was calculated for each question, where each question was assigned one point by each expert that qualified it as completely related or greatly related to assessing amphetamine withdrawal. The total points for each question were then summed and divided by the total number of scoring experts to generate a percentage Analyses were completed using SPSS software version One-hundred and six male patients were enrolled in this study. The average and median age of participants was Of the total participants, Overall, 1. Demographic features of these people are presented in Table 1. Participants reported no problems responding to the Persian version of the ASCA, and both patients being treated for amphetamine withdrawal and administrators appeared engaged during the questionnaires administration. Face validity was demonstrated through both patients and administrators reporting that the questionnaire addressed amphetamine withdrawal Content validity index CVI for the overall questionnaire was Results demonstrated adequate sampling index Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin at 0. According to both criteria, it could be concluded that an appropriate factor analysis was applied for this study Specific value index and the variance determination percentage were used to determine that evaluation of amphetamine withdrawal symptoms constituted of several components. The justified variance for the first, second, and third factor was To select questions, functional loads higher than 0. According to the results of the rotated component matrix, 11 questions loaded on the first factor 1, 3, 4, 5, 78, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 , 3 questions loaded on the second factor 2, 6, 9 , and 2 questions 15 and 16 loaded on the third factor. Labeling for the factors was completed based on the original questionnaire. First, second, and third factors were named by anxiety and mood, fatigue, and craving for use of amphetamine, respectively Table 3. Assessment of reliability was done for the entire group and individually for each of the 3 factors. When a questionnaire is translated for use with a different society and culture, it is necessary to examine its validity and reliability 27 , In this study, the face, content, and construct validity and reliability of the Persian version of ASCA questionnaire was examined. Results demonstrated that this version of the questionnaire had appropriate validity and reliability and that the questions retained their relevance for involved participants Content validity was appropriate, and this version of the questionnaire appeared to assess symptoms and natural processes of amphetamine withdrawal. Through factor analysis, 3 factors were determined for the Persian version of the ACSA questionnaire. These results were consistent with that of McGregor et al. The 3 factors justified Variance for the first anxiety and mood , second fatigue , and third craving factor were Findings of the current study are relatively consistent with that of McGregor et al. The results of the current study showed that the first factor covered questions 1 problem in concentration , 3 excitement , 4 unpleasant nightmares , 5 getting angry , 7 agitation , 8 suicide thoughts , 10 anxiety , 11 lack of enjoying life , 12 suspicion , 13 sadness , and 14 slow movements , the second factor covered questions 2 drowsiness , 6 feeling fatigue , and 9 non-activity , and the third factor coversed questions 15 craving and 16 severity of craving. The results of the current study are consistent with those of McGregor et al. A possible reason for this difference might be due to behavioral differences among the participators in both studies and difference in the justifiable sample. Therefore, it could be concluded that the reliability of the Persian version of this questionnaire was appropriate. These differences may be explained by cultural and population differences and also translation procedures The results of this study demonstrated that the Persian version of amphetamine cessation symptom assessment questionnaire had appropriate validity and reliability and had usability in related studies and activities in Iran. Hence, it is recommended for researchers and therapists, who work in the addiction field, to seek use of this questionnaire in amphetamine withdrawal treatments. Costa e Silva JA. Evidence-based analysis of the worldwide abuse of licit and illicit drugs. Hum Psychopharmacol. World Drug Report. Mohamadi K. Survey the changing pattern of drug use than the traditional low risk to industrial high risk of Iran. Moharreri MR. NIDA research monograph. Mokri A. Brief overview of the status of drug abuse in Iran. Arch Iranian Med. Rapid situation assessment of drug abuse and drug dependence in Iran. A survey of Ecstasy use among year-olds in five areas of Tehran. A Study of Birjand University students' knowledge and attitude towards taking Ecstasy pills. J Birjand Univ Med Sci. Prevalence and factors associated with Ecstasy use among college undergraduates in north of Iran Asian J Psychiatr. Prevalence and predictive factors of psychoactive and hallucinogenic substance abuse among college students. J Fund Ment Health. Comprehensive textbook of addiction treatment. Iranian National Drug Control Headquarters; Jenner L, McKetin R. Prevalence and patterns of psychostimulant use. Models of intervention and care for psychostimulant users. National Drug Strategy Monograph Series. Psychometric evaluation of the Amphetamine Cessation Symptom Assessment. J Subst Abuse Treat. Angrist B, Sudilovsky A. Central nervous system stimulants: historical aspects and clinical effects. Springer; Self detoxication by amphetamine dependent patients: a pilot study. Drug Alcohol Depend. Oral use of stimulants obtained from inhalers. J Am Med Assoc. Abuse of methylamphetamine. Br Med J. Methamphetamine abstinence syndrome: preliminary findings. Am J Addict. Clinical relevance of the distinction between alcohol dependence with and without a physiological component. Am J Psychiatry. Amphetamine withdrawal: I. Reliability, validity and factor structure of a measure. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. Measurement of the severity of amphetamine dependence. Reliability and validity of the Cocaine Selective Severity Assessment. Addict Behav. Process of translation and adaptation of instruments. World Health Organization; Munro's statistical methods for health care research. Measurement in nursing and health research. Springer Publishing Company; Survey on validity and reliability of diagnostic questionnaire of internet addiction disorder in students users. Zahedan J Res Med Sci. Patient Educ Couns. Michaeli Manee F. Internal consistency and confirmatory factor analysis of Wells and Davis Thought control questionnaire. Iran J Psychiatr Clin Psychol. Essentials of nursing research. We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience. They also allow us to analyze user behavior in order to constantly improve the website for you. Abstract Background: Illegal use of psychotropic drugs has become a great problem around the world. Change in the traditional pattern of drug abuse to industrial drugs is one of the challenges faced today in Iran. Objectives: The present study was performed to determine the reliability and validity of the Persian version of the amphetamine cessation symptom assessment ACSA questionnaire in patients of residential medical center in Alborz province of Iran. Patients and Methods: In this cross-sectional study, patients accepted to participate from patients enrolled in the residential medical center of Alborz province. After the questionnaire was translated to Persian, face, content, and construct validity was assessed. Exploratory factor analysis and principal component analysis were used to assess the construct validity. Content validity index CVI was used to assess the content validity of the questionnaire. The face validity step was based on the opinion of experts and patients that had just withdrew from the study and limited changes were inserted in the questionnaire. Results: Content validity for the entire of questionnaire was In factor analysis 3 acceptable factors with higher than 1 were identified that justified Conclusions: Results of this study showed that the questionnaire had appropriate reliability and validity in the evaluation of amphetamine withdrawal symptoms and could be used in similar activities and studies in Iran. Background Illegal use of psychotropic drugs has become a great problem around the world 1. Results One-hundred and six male patients were enrolled in this study. Table 1. Table 2. Table 3. Rotated Component Matrix for Questions. Table 4. References 1. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4. Leave a comment here:. Cookie Setting We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience.
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Thank you for visiting nature. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Although addiction develops in a considerable number of regular cocaine users, molecular risk factors for cocaine dependence are still unknown. It was proposed that establishing drug use and memory formation might share molecular and anatomical pathways. A meta-analysis across both samples confirmed that CAMK2A rs TT-allele carriers display a faster transition to severe cocaine use than C-allele carriers. Cocaine is the second most prevalent illegal drug in the United States and Europe after Cannabis, with a lifetime prevalence among young adults of 6. This action is known as autophosphorylation. It depends on a phosphorylation at the Thr site. The experiment involved four phases; habituation trial one session , conditioning trials 14 sessions and preference tests four sessions. Trials were performed once daily. Conditioning trials d, d and d : Mice were conditioned using a counterbalanced design. All animals received seven pairings with saline and seven pairings with cocaine in total. Preference tests d5, d10, d19 and d26 : Preference tests were performed after one, three and seven conditioning trials. A preference score was calculated from log-transformed values to normalize skewed data. Cocaine- and saline-induced locomotor activity and their sensitization were automatically scored as locomotor activity in the conditioning and pseudo-conditioning compartment after the first and seventh treatment, respectively. Cocaine- and saline-conditioned activity was automatically scored as the locomotor activity in the conditioning and pseudo-conditioning compartment, respectively, during undrugged testing during baseline and all subsequent test trials. Mice were deeply anesthetized and two guide cannulas were aimed at the prefrontal cortex PFC and the NAcc. Thereafter, mice were culled under isoflurane narcosis and transcardially perfused. Brains were taken and c-Fos activation was measured in the NAcc for details: see Supplementary Information. All controls with mean age of The characteristics of this sample were detailed previously elsewhere. Accordingly, higher the Kt, faster the transition to severe cocaine consumption was made. To replicate the gene effect found in this discovery sample, we analyzed three SNPs showing the strongest association effect sizes Supplementary Table 1 in a second and independent sample of regular cocaine users from Switzerland. PCR was performed using For experiment-specific details see Supplementary Information. The software SPSS In Ht mice, the DA response was completely absent Figure 3a. Extracellular levels of c dopamine, and d serotonin in the prefrontal cortex after acute cocaine treatment. Cocaine induces neuronal activation in the NAcc, which is the base for long-term cellular, morphological and drug use-related behavior and plasticity. While no functional gene mutation affecting the autophosphorylation site in humans is known, there are SNPs in the CAMK2A gene that may affect general activity and indirectly autophosphorylation. Kt is an index for the time to establish severe cocaine consumption from initial exposure to present day. These findings suggest a functional effect of genetic mutations in the CAMK2A gene on how fast humans develop cocaine dependence once consumption has begun, but not on whether they become cocaine users per se. At the same time it attenuated the cocaine-induced DA and 5-HT increase in both brain regions. NA responses were not affected. In the NAcc, this led to a reduced cellular activation as determined by c-Fos activity. While CPP reflects the rewarding properties of a drug, it can be derived from a number of different behavioral processes. The DA system is critical for the establishment of the acute reinforcing effects of cocaine. Neuroadaptive processes initiated by drugs of abuse are sensitive to the rate of drug administration. Previous work by Sora et al. However, basal 5-HT levels were significantly enhanced in these animals before treatment. In addition, we cannot rule out alterations in reuptake mechanisms and metabolic enzymes as a result of this mutation, or indeed cocaine administration itself, as having a crucial impact on extracellular transmitter levels seen in the present study. Cocaine effects on NAcc synaptic plasticity appeared to be under control of CaMKII in the ventral tegmental area, 19 which may, as the present study suggests, be transmitted to the NAcc by activity modulated dopaminergic projections. A crucial indicator of neuronal activation after a drug challenge is the immediate early gene c-Fos, 61 which becomes activated in the NAcc and other brain areas after acute cocaine administration by a DA and 5-HT dependent mechanism. These findings suggest that polymorphisms in the CAMK2A gene may contribute to the speed of acquiring a severe level of regular cocaine use once consumption has commenced. Although there was a genetic overlap, that is, jointly associated gene polymorphisms, in the associations between alcohol addiction and learning and memory, 9 , 25 no such overlap was found with the speed to establish severe cocaine use, which might suggest different mechanisms. Publications Office of the European Union: Luxembourg, Summary of National Findings. Add Behav ; 39 : — Article Google Scholar. Mental disorders as risk factors for later substance dependence: estimates of optimal prevention and treatment benefits. Psychol Med ; 39 : — From first drug use to drug dependence; developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Neuropsychopharmacology ; 26 : — Drugs as instruments: a new framework for non-addictive psychoactive drug use. Behav Brain Sci ; 34 : — Hyman SE. Addiction: a disease of learning and memory. Am J Psychiatry ; : — CaMKII regulation in information processing and storage. Trends Neurosci ; 35 : — CAMK2A polymorphisms predict working memory performance in humans. Mol Psychiatry a; 18 : — Giese KP, Mizuno K. The roles of protein kinases in learning and memory. Learn Mem ; 20 : — Calcium-mediated second messengers modulate the expression of behavioral sensitization to cocaine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther ; : — Genes and common pathways underlying drug addiction. PLoS Comput Biol ; 4 : e2. J Neurosci ; 33 : — Acute cocaine increases phosphorylation of CaMKII and GluA1 in the dorsolateral striatum of drug naive rats, but not cocaine-experienced rats. Neurosci Lett ; : 71— Chronic cocaine-induced H3 acetylation and transcriptional activation of CaMKIIalpha in the nucleus accumbens is critical for motivation for drug reinforcement. Neuropsychopharmacology ; 35 : — CaMKII: a biochemical bridge linking accumbens dopamine and glutamate systems in cocaine seeking. Nat Neurosci ; 11 : — J Neurosci ; 31 : — CaMKII activity in the ventral tegmental area gates cocaine-induced synaptic plasticity in the nucleus accumbens. Neuropsychopharmacology ; 39 : — Science ; : — Nat Neurosci ; 8 : — Neuropharmacology ; 61 : — Trends Neurosci ; 29 : — Behav Brain Res b; : 72— Neuropsychopharmacology c; 38 : — Log transformation: application and interpretation in biomedical research. Stat Med ; 32 : — The mouse brain in stereotaxic coordinates. Google Scholar. RASGRF2 regulates alcohol-induced reinforcement by influencing mesolimbic dopamine neuron activity and dopamine release. Concurrent crack and powder cocaine users from Sao Paulo: do they represent a different group?. BMC Public Health ; 6 : Dunn J, Laranjeira R. The development of a structured interview to evaluate cocaine use and risk behaviour. Rev Bras Psiquiatr ; 22 : 11— PLINK: a tool set for whole-genome association and population-based linkage analyses. Am J Hum Genet ; 81 : — The structure of haplotype blocks in the human genome. Cognitive dysfunctions in recreational and dependent cocaine users: role of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, craving and early age at onset. Br J Psychiatry ; : 35— Altered social and non-social decision-making in recreational and dependent cocaine users. Psychol Med ; 44 : — Impaired emotional empathy and related social network deficits in cocaine users. Addict Biol ; 19 : — Whitlock MC. J Evol Biol ; 18 : — Hedges LV Olkin I. Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Microdialysis in rodents. Curr Protoc Neurosci ; Chapter 7 : Unit 7. Homer2 is necessary for EtOH-induced neuroplasticity. J Neurosci ; 25 : — Di Chiara G, Imperato A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Role of medial prefrontal, entorhinal, and occipital 5-HT in cocaine-induced place preference and hyperlocomotion: evidence for multiple dissociations. Psychopharmacology Berl ; : — Robinson TE, Kolb B. Structural plasticity associated with exposure to drugs of abuse. Neuropharmacology ; 47 : 33— Neuroplasticity in the mesolimbic dopamine system and cocaine addiction. Br J Pharmacol ; : — J Neurosci ; 32 : — What's conditioned in conditioned place preference?. Trends Pharmacol Sci ; 34 : — Int J Comp Psychol ; 14 : — Localization of brain reinforcement mechanisms: intracranial self-administration and intracranial place-conditioning studies. Behav Brain Res ; : — Why does the rapid delivery of drugs to the brain promote addiction?. Trends Pharmacol Sci ; 26 : 82— Crack cocaine and cocaine hydrochloride. Are the differences myth or reality?. JAMA ; : — Nature ; : — J Neurosci ; 22 : — Calmodulin kinase determines calcium-dependent facilitation of L-type calcium channels. Nat Cell Biol ; 2 : — Griffith LC, Schulman H. J Biol Chem ; : — Brain Res ; : 1— Cocaine reward models: conditioned place preference can be established in dopamine- and in serotonin-transporter knockout mice. Double dissociating effects of sensory stimulation and cocaine on serotonin activity in the occipital and temporal cortices. Neuropharmacology a; 52 : — Serotonin and psychostimulant addiction: focus on 5-HT1A-receptors. Prog Neurobiol b; 81 : — Dissociating effects of cocaine and d-amphetamine on dopamine and serotonin in the perirhinal, entorhinal, and prefrontal cortex of freely moving rats. Phosphorylation and activation of tryptophan hydroxylase 2: identification of serine as the substrate site for calcium, calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II. J Neurochem ; : — Expression of the immediate early gene c-fos in basal ganglia: induction by dopaminergic drugs. Can J Neurol Sci ; 18 : — Activation of transcription factor genes in striatum by cocaine—role of both serotonin and dopamine systems. J Pharmacol Exp Therap ; : — CAS Google Scholar. Download references. You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Supplementary Information accompanies the paper on the Translational Psychiatry website. Reprints and permissions. Easton, A. Transl Psychiatry 4 , e Download citation. Received : 02 May Revised : 18 July Accepted : 21 August Published : 07 October Issue Date : October Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:. Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. Download PDF. Subjects Addiction Molecular neuroscience. Abstract Although addiction develops in a considerable number of regular cocaine users, molecular risk factors for cocaine dependence are still unknown. GluN2B inhibition confers resilience against long-term cocaine-induced neurocognitive sequelae Article 02 September Introduction Cocaine is the second most prevalent illegal drug in the United States and Europe after Cannabis, with a lifetime prevalence among young adults of 6. Conditioned hyperactivity Cocaine- and saline-conditioned activity was automatically scored as the locomotor activity in the conditioning and pseudo-conditioning compartment, respectively, during undrugged testing during baseline and all subsequent test trials. In vivo microdialysis Mice were deeply anesthetized and two guide cannulas were aimed at the prefrontal cortex PFC and the NAcc. Figure 1. Full size image. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. View author publications. Ethics declarations Competing interests The authors declare no conflict of interest. Additional information Supplementary Information accompanies the paper on the Translational Psychiatry website. Supplementary information. Supplementary Information DOC kb. About this article. Cite this article Easton, A. Copy to clipboard. Search Search articles by subject, keyword or author. Show results from All journals This journal. Advanced search.
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For accounts of other cases in the Global South, see James Mills, 'Decolonising Drugs in Asia: the case of cocaine in colonial India', Third World Quarterly
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