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A single dose of cocaine enhances prospective memory performance

Kant where can I buy cocaine

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Email: nadia. Prospective memory is the ability to recall intended actions or events at the right time or in the right context. While cannabis is known to impair prospective memory, the acute effect of cocaine is unknown. In addition, it is not clear whether changes in prospective memory represent specific alterations in memory processing or result from more general effects on cognition that spread across multiple domains such as arousal and attention. The main objective of the study was, therefore, to determine whether drug-induced changes in prospective memory are memory specific or associated with more general drug-induced changes in attention and arousal. Attentional performance was assessed using a divided attention task and subjective arousal was assessed with the Profile of Mood States questionnaire. Results showed that cocaine enhanced prospective memory, attention and arousal. Mean performance of prospective memory and attention, as well as levels of arousal were lowest during treatment with cannabis as compared with placebo and cocaine as evinced by a significantly increased trend across treatment conditions. Prospective memory performance was only weakly positively associated to measures of attention and arousal. Together, these results indicate that cocaine enhancement of prospective memory performance cannot be fully explained by parallel changes in arousal and attention levels, and is likely to represent a direct change in the neural network underlying prospective memory. Keywords: Cocaine, deltatetrahydrocannabinol, event-based, prospective memory, attention. The acute effects of cannabis and cocaine on cognitive functions of recreational drug users have been repeatedly assessed in placebo-controlled experimental studies. These studies have shown that a single dose of deltatetrahydrocannabinol THC , the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis, impairs performance in laboratory tasks measuring executive function, impulse control, psychomotor performance Ramaekers et al. Single doses of cocaine have been shown to impair impulse control, while improving psychomotor function Ramaekers et al. Acute effects of cocaine on memory, however, have not been studied extensively Spronk et al. Studies in dependent cocaine users Haney et al. Psychostimulants such as cocaine have been used as performance enhancers throughout history Wood et al. At present, increasing numbers of adults, particularly college students, are misusing psychostimulants primarily for cognitive enhancement Marraccini et al. Animal studies have demonstrated that single doses of psychostimulants such as methylphenidate Carmack et al. Human drug studies on memory enhancement following psychostimulant administration have mostly focused on tasks measuring retrospective memory, i. Stimulant effects on prospective memory, however, have hardly been studied so far. Prospective memory involves the capacity and integrity of memory to encode, retrain and recollect future intentions and actions such as remembering to call a friend, take medication or go to a meeting, and differs from retrospective memory in that it involves self-initiated retrieval, sometimes cued by an event or time Einstein et al. Likewise, sedative drugs such as alcohol and cannabis have also been associated with prospective memory deficits both after acute dose administrations Montgomery et al. For example, drug-induced reductions or increments in arousal and attention may indirectly lead to a decline or boost of memory performance, as high levels of arousal and attention have been associated with enhanced prospective memory performance Marchant et al. Impairments in prospective memory, as observed after acute doses of cannabis Theunissen et al. Likewise, memory enhancement, as observed for stimulants Linssen et al. The current study was designed to assess the acute influence of single dose of cocaine and of cannabis on prospective memory and to assess whether drug-induced changes in prospective memory are associated with drug-induced changes in attention and arousal. In order to test these aims, a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study was designed. Drug effects on attention and arousal were assessed using a divided attention task and subjective measure of arousal. It was expected that after cannabis administration prospective memory would be impaired, while cocaine administration was expected to improve prospective memory performance. For a time line of the study design, see Figure 1. Cannabis was administered through a vaporiser Volcano obtained from Storz and Bickel GmbH and Co Tuttlingen, Germany and was used according to the manual provided by the producer. Cannabis vaporization is a technique by which cannabis plant material is heated to a temperature where active cannabinoid vapours form. This is considered a safe and effective way of administering cannabis Hazekamp et al. The vapours are then collected in a detachable plastic balloon of 55 cm length. The balloon can be removed from the device and fitted with a mouthpiece for inhalation. Participants were instructed to empty the balloon in 4—5 breaths. After each inhalation, participants had to hold their breath for 10 seconds before exhaling. The density of the vapour captured in the balloon did not noticeably differ between THC and placebo. Cocaine HCl or placebo was administered in an opaque white capsule. Treatments were administered using a double dummy technique. Conditions were separated by a minimum wash-out period of seven days to avoid cross-condition contamination. The order of conditions was balanced over participants and sessions. Timeline of the course of a testing day. The red arrow indicates the moment of cocaine or placebo capsule administration and the green arrows represent the deltatetrahydrocannabinol THC or placebo vapour administration. The present study was part of a larger trial on the association between drug use and impulse control, of which a large part of the data has been published elsewhere Ramaekers et al. Initially, 16 healthy poly-drug users from the large trial were included in this part of the study. However, due to non-compliance with the task instructions, one participant was removed from the final sample that entered the data analysis. Participants 14 males; one female were aged The details on their cannabis and cocaine use are depicted in Table 1. Participants were recruited through advertisements in local newspapers and by word of mouth. Before inclusion, participants were examined by a medical supervisor, who checked for general health and took blood samples and a urine sample for standard chemistry and haematology. Inclusion criteria were: written informed consent; age 18—40 years; regular cannabis and cocaine use defined as two times per week or more for cannabis and at least five times in the past year for cocaine; free from psychotropic medication; good physical health as assessed by a medical doctor; normal weight as determined by body mass index BMI 18— Exclusion criteria were: addiction to cocaine according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, version 5 DSM-IV criteria; presence or history of psychiatric or neurological disorder as assessed during a clinical interview; pregnancy or lactating; cardiovascular abnormalities; excessive drinking or smoking, and hypertension. Participants were familiarised with all tests and procedures during a training session, before the start of the actual test days. They were asked to refrain from all drugs of abuse except cannabis at least one week before the study start until the last test day. They were asked not to use any caffeinated or alcoholic beverages 24 h before testing and to get a normal night of sleep. All participants indicated that they had not smoked cannabis in the morning prior to testing. Women were given a pregnancy test. When tests were negative except for cannabis , participants filled out a questionnaire to assess sleep complaints, and had a light standard breakfast. After breakfast at , participants were administered a capsule containing either mg cocaine HCl or placebo orally. In between treatments, participants were allowed to read a book or watch television. After conducting laboratory tests, assessing impulsivity, psychomotor performance results published in van Wel et al. Blood samples were taken three times a day, at baseline, just before the prospective memory task and at the end of the test day Relative to cocaine and cannabis administration, the second blood sample was collected 2. A schematic representation of the time course of a testing day is represented in Figure 1. The study was conducted according to the code of ethics on human experimentation established by the Declaration of Helsinki and subsequent amendments, and it was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of the Academic Hospital of Maastricht and Maastricht University. A permit for obtaining, storing and administering cocaine and cannabis was obtained from the Dutch drug enforcement administration. Participants signed an informed consent and were paid upon completion of the testing periods for their participation. Participants were engaged in a foreground task that consisted of pushing as quickly as possible one of two buttons in response to stimuli letter A or B presented on a screen. In total, letters were presented with both letters presented equally often. Participants were also given a second prospective task, i. A trial counter that was always present in the left top corner of the screen informed the participants about the number of the trial. In addition, participants were presented at irregular times with a future trial number in the right top corner of the display. Participants were instructed to remember this future trial number and withhold from responding to the foreground task during the actual occurrence of the future trial. The memory set of subjects was dynamic and contained up to three future trial numbers. A trial number in the memory set was replaced by a novel future trial number whenever the actual trial number matched a future trial number in the set. Trials during which participants were expected to respond were classified as Go trials. Trials during which subjects were instructed to withhold a response were classified as No-Go trials prospective memory trials. Each trial lasted for 12 s. However, the central letters disappeared upon a button press. Presentations of future trial numbers lasted four seconds. At the beginning and the end of the task, a total of eight trials were presented during which the memory set was empty. The percentage of correct inhibitions in No-Go trials was the primary performance parameter. Number of correct responses and corresponding reaction time during Go trials were the secondary performance parameters. The PMT lasted for 20 min. Three parallel versions of the PMT were developed for administration during the test sessions to avoid learning effects. Participants were engaged in a tracking task that measured the ability to control a displayed error signal Jex et al. Simultaneously, participants had to monitor 24 single digits which were presented in the corners of the computer screen. Arousal level was measured by the POMS questionnaire. Blood samples to determine cannabis and cocaine concentrations were taken at baseline, 2. Determination took place in a specialized forensic-toxicological laboratory using validated procedures Toennes et al. PMT and DAT data, subjective measures of arousal and subjective high, and blood concentrations were checked for normality, using Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests of normality. In case of main effects, subsequent treatment contrasts were performed. In case of a main treatment effect, subsequent polynomial contrasts were added as a linear trend analysis across all treatments. Non-normal distributed data was analysed with a non-parametric Friedman test to test the main effects of treatment, with subsequent Wilcoxon signed-rank test for treatment contrasts, in case of main effects. In addition, correlation analyses were conducted to assess relationship between cannabis and cocaine blood concentrations respectively, and drug-placebo differences of prospective memory failures. The first correlation analysis provides information about the association between prospective memory and arousal and attention, and the association between arousal and attention. The latter provides information on the drug concentration in blood and the acute effects of both drugs on prospective memory performance. Due to technical issues, computer responses were not registered, resulting in missing data for the DAT in the placebo condition for one person and cocaine condition for another person. Some of the blood samples were missing due to inability to draw blood see Table 2. Treatment contrast between cannabis and placebo was not significant. There was no significant difference comparing cocaine and placebo treatment on reaction time and percentage correct in Go trials. Treatment contrasts comparing placebo with cocaine and placebo with cannabis were not significant. Again, treatment contrasts comparing placebo with cocaine and placebo with cannabis were not significant. Results show that both treatments were significantly intoxicated compared with placebo. Blood concentrations during cocaine, cannabis and placebo treatments are shown in Table 2. The cannabinoid analyses revealed the presence of THC and its metabolites in all conditions at baseline which are a consequence of repeated cannabis use see Table 1 , Toennes et al. In the latter case, the correlation seemed to be driven by three outlying data points see Figure 3 c , which seemed like the results of one participant, however these data points represent three different participants. Scatterplots of percentage correct inhibitions No-Go trials as a function of a arousal, b tracking error and c correct detections. Cocaine and THC concentrations in serum were not correlated to performance in the No-Go trials of the prospective memory task, indicating a homogenous participant sample. The current study aimed to assess the influence of single-dose administration of cocaine and cannabis on prospective memory and to determine whether cocaine and cannabis induced changes in prospective memory depend on changes in attention and arousal. Cocaine administration enhanced prospective memory performance relative to placebo and cannabis. Prospective memory performance was lowest after cannabis, in between after placebo and highest after cocaine administration, evinced by a linear trend across treatment conditions. Cocaine also improved performance on the primary tracking and secondary correct detections task of the divided attention test, relative to cannabis. Tracking performance was lowest in the cannabis condition but increased following placebo and cocaine. After cocaine administration, subjective arousal levels were increased as compared with placebo and cannabis. Once again arousal levels were lowest in the cannabis condition and increased after placebo and cocaine. Only a small part of the enhancing effects of cocaine on prospective memory can be explained by underlying changes in arousal and attention. The present study was the first to demonstrate that acute administrations of cocaine can enhance prospective memory. The present study however showed that prospective memory performance was only poorly associated with divided attention performance and arousal. This indicates that these constructs only explained a very small portion of the variance observed in prospective memory performance. Memory enhancement, as observed after cocaine in the present study therefore, is more likely to have resulted from direct improvement of the prospective memory circuits rather than from a general increase in attention. This finding seems in line with animal studies showing that exposure to cocaine may directly enhance hippocampal function and memory. Likewise, Muriach et al. Such improvement in memory and learning, however, does not automatically imply that cocaine should be used as a preferred cognition enhancer. Indeed, many animal studies have pointed out that the precognitive effects of cocaine may play a role in drug seeking behaviour by strengthening the formation of maladaptive associations between drug use, context and cues Kutlu and Gould, Yet, the present data does suggest that cocaine-induced cognition, and therefore enhancement or changes in synaptic plasticity, may very well exceed the context of drug reinforcement learning. Cocaine-induced enhancement of prospective memory might generalise to other domains of memory as well. For example, retrospective and prospective memory processes do not operate completely independent from each other which would allow transfer of procedural deficits in retrospective to prospective memory Ferbinteanu and Shapiro, ; West and Krompinger, Alternatively, individuals with a deficit in prospective memory do often display normal operation of retrospective memory van den Berg et al. This suggest that while both memory processes overlap, they are not necessarily interchangeable Glisky, ; West and Krompinger, Transferability of drug effects between different memory processes, therefore, may depend on whether a drug acts on a memory mode that is being shared by memory circuits. For example, it has been pointed out that performance on prospective and retrospective memory tasks in part relies on a similar retrieval mode that is located in BA10 Underwood et al. We do not know whether cocaine-enhanced encoding, retrieval or storage of information in our participants. Yet, in the case that a common retrieval process was positively affected by cocaine, we would expect memory enhancement to appear both in retrospective as well as PMTs. What is evident is that prospective memory performance heavily relies on working memory processes as the task is very dynamic and requires continuous updating and retrieval of novel information. Working memory and prospective memory processes are not based on the same memory system, but prospective memory is highly demanding of working memory resources Basso et al. Several studies have shown that prospective memory is related to individual working memory capacity Einstein et al. As cocaine enhanced prospective memory, it can be expected that cocaine enhances working memory as well. Memory enhancement has also been demonstrated for stimulant drugs with similar mechanisms of action as cocaine. Adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorser treated with methylphenidate showed improved memory functions when compared with non-medicated patients across a range of memory domains, including prospective memory Fuermaier et al. Similar effects have been reported in healthy volunteers. A review of methylphenidate studies in healthy volunteers Linssen et al. Cocaine and methylphenidate are also being misused by healthy college students to enhance their study performances although the effectiveness of this approach is largely unknown Marraccini et al. Cocaine and methylphenidate share the same dopamine as well as noradrenaline enhancing effects, by blocking dopamine and noradrenaline transporters Han and Gu, ; Schweri et al. Additionally, cocaine also inhibits the serotonin transporter. Similarities in their pharmacological profiles seem to indicate that the enhancement of dopamine and noradrenaline levels during cocaine treatment may underlie the neurobiological changes in memory. The influence of cannabis on prospective memory and attentional performance was much as expected. Previous studies already demonstrated that single doses of THC can significantly impair prospective memory Theunissen et al. In the present study, performances during cannabis and placebo did not significantly differ from each other when statistically compared with cannabis-placebo contrasts. However, mean performance during cannabis was always worse as compared with placebo, and the trend showing an increase in performance from cannabis, placebo to cocaine administration was highly significant. In the present study, the cannabis condition primarily served as an active control for the placebo condition to widen the coverage of the memory, arousal and attention performance ranging from poor to normal enhancement. As such, the inclusion of cannabis treatment increased the overall reliability of correlational analyses between measures of prospective memory and measures of attention and arousal. Repeated cannabis use leads to residual concentrations of THC and its metabolites Toennes et al. However, we do not expect that these baseline levels would interfere with test performances as these concentrations did not differ across treatment conditions. In addition, concentrations as determined here were found not to be relevant for the observed effects Ramaekers et al. However, chronic use of cannabis can lead to memory impairments which can last for weeks, months or even years Solowij and Battisti, , so stimulants like cocaine might reverse these deficits if present. The present data revealed that the prospective-memory-enhancing effects of cocaine can only be explained partly by enhanced attention and arousal levels. It might be argued that a low association between prospective memory and attention might have resulted from a lack of a very strong drug effect on attentional performance. Indeed, performance on the DAT primarily differed between drug conditions and not between drug and placebo treatment. Perhaps drug effects on attention would have appeared more prominent if the sample size had been bigger. However, the cocaine effect on prospective memory and arousal were very robust and significantly different from placebo. However, levels of arousal were only weakly associated with prospective memory performance despite the presence of a strong drug effect on both parameters. The latter therefore seems to indicate the validity of current observations. It would be advisable to replicate the current findings in a larger sample and, perhaps, with the inclusion of a broader range of memory and attention tests Rich et al. In summary, the current findings suggest that cocaine administration enhances prospective memory performance, while cannabis tends to impair prospective memory. Prospective memory performance was only weakly associated with measures of attention and arousal, suggesting that cocaine exerts a direct influence on memory processing. Replication studies are needed to examine whether the enhancing effects of cocaine are generalisable to other memory domains, and whether other aspects of attention play a role in these effects. The authors would like to thank Cees van Leeuwen for the medical supervision, and all the interns who have worked on these projects and helped out with data collection. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. J Psychopharmacol. Find articles by Kim PC Kuypers. Find articles by Janelle HP van Wel. Find articles by Eef L Theunissen. Find articles by Stefan W Toennes. Find articles by Robbert-Jan Verkes. Find articles by Johannes G Ramaekers. Issue date Aug. Open in a new tab. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

Kant where can I buy cocaine