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These datasets underpin the analysis presented in the agency's work. Most data may be viewed interactively on screen and downloaded in Excel format. All countries. Topics A-Z. The content in this section is aimed at anyone involved in planning, implementing or making decisions about health and social responses. Best practice. We have developed a systemic approach that brings together the human networks, processes and scientific tools necessary for collecting, analysing and reporting on the many aspects of the European drugs phenomenon. Explore our wide range of publications, videos and infographics on the drugs problem and how Europe is responding to it. All publications. More events. More news. We are your source of drug-related expertise in Europe. We prepare and share independent, scientifically validated knowledge, alerts and recommendations. About the EUDA. MDMA is a synthetic drug chemically related to the amphetamines, but with somewhat different effects. In Europe, MDMA use has generally been associated with episodic patterns of consumption in the context of nightlife and entertainment settings. On this page, you can find the latest analysis of the drug situation for MDMA in Europe, including prevalence of use, seizures, price and purity and more. European Drug Report — home. The drug situation in Europe up to Drug supply, production and precursors. Synthetic stimulants. Heroin and other opioids. New psychoactive substances. Other drugs. Injecting drug use in Europe. Drug-related infectious diseases. Drug-induced deaths. Opioid agonist treatment. Harm reduction. Reported use of the drug appeared to decline temporarily during periods of social distancing during the early phases of the COVID pandemic. The currently available data would, however, suggest an overall relatively stable level of consumption but with national variations in the recent trends observed and the caveat that overall supply side indicators are suggestive of a slight recent decline in availability. About half of the European cities reporting wastewater analysis found an increase in MDMA residues between and , although in most other cities some decline was noted. Overall, available indicators suggest that MDMA production continues within Europe, both for domestic consumption and for export to non-EU markets. The information available is strongly suggestive that most MDMA production continues to be largely concentrated in or around the Netherlands. There are some signs of a reduction in the volume being manufactured in the most recent data. An important caveat here is that this information mostly covers the first years of the pandemic and needs to be interpreted with caution. In addition, while overall the average MDMA content of tablets and purity of powders remained stable in , a recent decrease in the MDMA content of ecstasy tablets was noted in some important source countries, most notably the Netherlands. With a typical MDMA content of to milligrams, the overall strength of tablets available on the retail marketplace still remains high by historical standards. It is difficult to interpret the more recent data with any certainty, but a possible decline in production volumes and some reductions noted in MDMA tablet content may indicate that producers have experienced greater problems sourcing precursor chemicals or that some producers may have switched to producing other substances, either because of market demand or because they are more profitable. It may also reflect a perceived consumer demand for lower-strength products. The use of MDMA is rarely cited as a reason for entering drug treatment in Europe but acute poisonings and deaths are sometimes associated with the consumption of this substance. The use of MDMA therefore continues to represent an important issue for prevention and harm reduction messaging and interventions. The availability of higher strength products potentially increases the risk of adverse health outcomes associated with the consumption of this substance. Interestingly, a decline in MDMA-related presentations by a quarter was observed in sentinel hospital emergency departments with data for and This data set, however, is difficult to interpret in respect to overall trends, as it is not nationally representative, has limited coverage and may reflect either changes in consumption or reporting during the pandemic. While it is again difficult to generalise due to limitations in national and European coverage, the available information from drug checking services suggests that MDMA products are generally less subject to adulteration than other illicit drugs they screened in This does occur however, as illustrated by the inclusion of synthetic cathinones in MDMA tablets observed on some occasions. These sorts of mixtures may also increase the risk to consumers of experiencing unexpected adverse effects and potential harm. This data explorer enables you to view our data on the prevalence of MDMA use by recall period and age range. You can access data by country by clicking on the map or selecting a country from the dropdown menu. Prevalence data presented here are based on general population surveys submitted to the EMCDDA by national focal points. For the latest data and detailed methodological information please see the Statistical Bulletin Prevalence of drug use. Graphics showing the most recent data for a country are based on studies carried out between and Mean daily amounts of MDMA in milligrams per population. Sampling was carried out over a week in March and April Show source tables. Back to list of tables. Homepage Quick links Quick links. GO Results hosted on duckduckgo. Main navigation Data Open related submenu Data. Latest data Prevalence of drug use Drug-induced deaths Infectious diseases Problem drug use Treatment demand Seizures of drugs Price, purity and potency. Drug use and prison Drug law offences Health and social responses Drug checking Hospital emergencies data Syringe residues data Wastewater analysis Data catalogue. Selected topics Alternatives to coercive sanctions Cannabis Cannabis policy Cocaine Darknet markets Drug checking Drug consumption facilities Drug markets Drug-related deaths Drug-related infectious diseases. Recently published Findings from a scoping literature…. Penalties at a glance. Frequently asked questions FAQ : drug…. FAQ: therapeutic use of psychedelic…. Viral hepatitis elimination barometer…. EU Drug Market: New psychoactive…. EU Drug Market: Drivers and facilitators. Statistical Bulletin home. Quick links Search news Subscribe newsletter for recent news Subscribe to news releases. This make take up to a minute. Once the PDF is ready it will appear in this tab. Sorry, the download of the PDF failed. Table of contents Search within the book. Search within the book Operator Any match. Exact term match only. No overall trend emerges from the data on MDMA use. Of the 11 European countries that undertook surveys since and provided confidence intervals, 1 reported higher estimates than their previous comparable survey, 9 reported stable estimates and 1 reported a decrease. Seizures of MDMA precursors increased to 2. The Netherlands, however, reported a lower average MDMA content of ecstasy tablets mg per tablet. MDMA market in Europe. Table 2. Prevalence of drug use in Europe, trends Country Country code Geographical scope Substance Recall period Age Austria AT National Table 3. Masaryk Water Resesrch institute, p. Table 4. Table 5. Table 6. Table 7. Table 8. Table 9. Table Main subject. Target audience. Publication type. European Drug Report main page. On this page. Forensic Toxicology Labs. Prevalence data presented here are based on general populaton surveys submitted to the EMCDDA by national focal points.

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Met BSL Psychologie Totaal blijf je als professional steeds op de hoogte van de nieuwste ontwikkelingen binnen jouw vak. Met het online abonnement heb je toegang tot een groot aantal boeken, protocollen, vaktijdschriften en e-learnings op het gebied van psychologie en psychiatrie. Zo kun je op je gemak en wanneer het jou het beste uitkomt verdiepen in jouw vakgebied. Menu Mijn bibliotheek. Tips voor Mijn BSL. Bohn Stafleu van Loghum. Deel dit onderdeel of sectie kopieer de link. Optie A:. Deel de link per e-mail Link delen. Behavioural techniques can produce similar self-directed affiliation. For example, compassionate imagery CI and ecstasy reduce self-criticism and increase self-compassion to a similar extent, with the effects of CI enhanced in the presence of ecstasy. Here, we examine self-compassion and self-criticism in recreational users who consumed chemically verified MDMA in a within-subjects crossover study. Effects on state self-criticism, self-compassion and emotional empathy were assessed before and after MDMA use or over an extended baseline period on the occasion that MDMA was not consumed and reassessed after CI. Establishing the observed effects in controlled studies will be critical for determining the combined utility of these approaches in fostering adaptive self-attitudes in a therapeutic context. Its subjective interpersonal effects are well documented in recreational users Sumnall et al. Similar subjective effects are seen in controlled laboratory experiments with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA; Kamilar-Britt and Bedi , the primary constituent of most street ecstasy Brunt et al. MDMA may have unique potential as an adjunct to psychotherapy for disorders characterised by heightened interpersonal threat, concerns about social evaluation and deficits in understanding of interpersonal communication Danforth et al. A number of biological and neuropsychological mechanisms have been proposed to account for these potential therapeutic effects. Behavioural studies, for example, indicate that MDMA increases emotional empathy and reduces aspects of cognitive empathy Kamilar-Britt and Bedi In addition, evidence from multiple experimental paradigms e. Bershad et al. Since oxytocin is implicated in attachment behaviour, altruism and cooperation Campbell , its enhanced release could result in a strengthening of the therapeutic relationship and increase the willingness of patients to disclose private and painful memories during MDMA-assisted psychotherapy. In addition, MDMA might promote changes in dysfunctional self -referential attitudes, especially when used in conjunction with behavioural procedures that aim to modify these attitudes Kamboj et al. The goal of changing dysfunctional self-attitudes and beliefs e. In cognitive therapy, for example, this involves encouraging patients to generate compassionate responses to self-attacking thoughts Kelly et al. The inwardly directed affiliation promoted by techniques used in compassion-focused therapy, such as compassionate imagery, may also be generated or augmented by oxytocin release. In fact, intranasal oxytocin administration Rockliff et al. Such resilience can be inculcated through repeated and disciplined cognitive training regimes that enhance emotion regulation and down-regulate stress. An example of such training is mindfulness, although other approaches from Eastern meditative traditions—including compassion-oriented practices—have also been adopted in contemporary psychiatric and psychotherapy practice D'Silva et al. Despite the potential benefits of using compassion-oriented contemplative techniques as therapeutic strategies, individuals vary in their trait capacity for compassion and may find self-directed compassion-oriented strategies challenging, despite training. This has been conceptualised as a resistance to, or fear of, compassion and can represent a risk factor for psychopathology, or a barrier to successful treatment Gilbert et al. Neuropsychopharmacological augmentation e. Such augmentation has been highlighted as an important area for psychiatric treatment development, especially for patients who are unresponsive to single-modality treatments, or for those who have special risk factors Moss et al. In a recent preliminary study, we found that recreational ecstasy use—which increases circulating oxytocin levels Wolff et al. However, since street ecstasy is often composed of various psychoactive substances other than MDMA, and the presence of MDMA was not assessed in that study Kamboj et al. This necessarily imposes some limits on the strength of conclusions that can be drawn from studies conducted in such settings. These can then pave the way for more tightly controlled studies if promising effects are observed. Previous naturalistic drug studies Freeman et al. On the basis of our previous findings Kamboj et al. In addition, we examined the ostensibly separate and combined effects of MDMA and CI on general inter personal processing of criticism and compassion using a measure of emotional empathy that included critical and compassionate facial stimuli. Based on experimental studies of MDMA showing that it enhances emotional empathy in response to positive social stimuli Kamilar-Britt and Bedi , we predicted that it would enhance emotional arousal in response to compassionate facial expressions in the current study. Interested participants were asked to contact the research team for information about the study. Those expressing an interest in participating were telephone-screened. Those disclosing a history of serious mental health problem or physical illness i. Since our aim was to only include participants confirmed to have consumed MDMA, we over-recruited relative to our previous study Kamboj et al. Twenty-five participants began and completed the study 14 men; 11 women. Sixteen were smokers. Procedure The procedure closely followed that used in Kamboj et al. All the participants completed both sessions. T3 was post-CI both sessions. Procedure and assessment time points were the same on both sessions with the exception that no MDMA was self-administered and additional trait and drug-use history measures were completed from T1 to T2 on the CI-only session. The participants were asked to refrain from any drugs except caffeine and nicotine for 24 h prior to the testing session. A urine sample was provided at the start of each of the two sessions. ECG electrodes were attached and a period of stabilisation allowed. Since MDMA effects are close to peak levels after 1 h Tancer and Johanson , this was the fixed time interval used between T1 and T2 assessments, regardless of the route of administration. Between T1 and T2, the participants read or listened to music. A 1-h interval also separated T1 and T2 on the CI-only session. As such, T2 assessments served as an additional baseline in the CI-only session see Fig. The mean weight of consumed MDMA was 0. Note, the latter amount was an outlier see below. After repeating the state affect assessments at T2, the participants listened to guided CI instructions and then completed the state affect measures again at T3. The aim of the assessments at T1 and T2 was to assess state affect, self-compassion and self-criticism following MDMA use alone i. A series of visual analogue scales assessed ecstasy-related mood and symptoms. State Self-Compassion and Self-Criticism. It consists of five scenarios designed to induce negative self-referential thinking. This yields maximum subscale scores of for self-criticism and for self-compassion. Positive Affect. The participants responded to items in relation to how they currently felt. Adult Attachment. Higher scores are indicative of higher levels of comfort in depending on others an analogue of secure attachment and lower scores, greater discomfort an analogue of insecure attachment. These subscale scores were entered as separate covariates to examine moderation of effects on self-compassion by individual differences in adult attachment. Drug Use. Participants indicated whether they had consumed alcohol, tobacco, ecstasy, cannabis, cocaine, ketamine, hallucinogens, mephedrone or amphetamine in the past 24 h and previous 2 weeks. Urine samples were tested for the presence of these common recreational drugs Alere, Abingdon, Oxfordshire, UK. Recent alcohol use was assessed using a breathalyser Lion Instruments, UK at the start of both sessions. Physiological Assessment. We adapted this task from the one originally described by Ali et al. The Empathy Assessment Task using the Self-Assessment Manikin EAT-SAM was programmed in PsychoPy Peirce and involved presenting and recording subjective arousal and valence responses evoked by facial affect stimuli comprising photographic images of basic anger and happiness and complex interpersonal criticism and compassion emotions see Ali et al. Anger and happiness stimuli were drawn from the NimStim series Tottenham et al. Since there are currently no similar standard stimuli of critical and compassionate faces, we used a new stimulus set consisting of nine facial expression of each, developed as part of a different project Falconer et al. The approach we used in generating these stimuli is outlined in detail in Tiddeman et al. Briefly, we first created neutral facial stimuli of nine different female identities, each of which was itself generated by averaging the photographed faces of three female actors using the image averaging software, PsychoMorph Tiddeman et al. This software allows facial features from photographs to be registered with markers and then averaged into a composite of those features captured as a new image and therefore new identity. The second stage involved morphing the facial features of the new averaged identities towards a composite prototype image of a face expressing either compassion or criticism Perrett et al. These compassionate and critical facial stimulus composites were generated from 10 photographic images out of an initial set of different images of different actors expressing compassion and criticism following an emotion-induction task relevant to generating these states. The selected photographs were those rated by 70 raters as most representative of compassionate and critical expressions representative images available upon request from author CJF. Immediately before the task, the participants were instructed on the meaning of the Self-Assessment Manikin SAM pictograms in terms of rating their current feelings on dimensions of arousal and valence, based on standard instructions for the SAM Bradley and Lang The task was deployed on a PC when the participant indicated they understood the instructions. There were no practice trials. Individual facial expression images were preceded by a central fixation cross 1 s and presented in randomised order on a in. The next trial then began. Each scale was displayed below each affect image and consisted of nine radio buttons along with manikin-form anchors Bradley and Lang The subjective arousal response to the affective displays of other people is considered an implicit measure of emotional empathy Ali et al. Briefly, the participants listened to standardised audio-recorded instructions presented through headphones describing the nature of compassion and the qualities of an ideal compassionate being. The participants were told that this compassionate being could take any form they wished and that it would emanate compassion, directed at them. Each sample was weighed, labelled and dissolved in deuterated methanol 0. Data was examined graphically and statistically for normality and outliers. Parametric statistical analyses were therefore applied. For the latter, the Time factor had only two levels T2, T3 and separate analyses were conducted for basic angry; happy and complex emotions critical; compassionate because these pairs of stimuli were drawn from different sources. As such, the Emotion factor also had two levels angry and happy or critical and compassionate. Specifically, indices of dispositional avoidant attachment closeness and dependence scores on the AAS were entered as covariates. Planned comparisons were used to follow up the main analyses on self-compassion and self-criticism. As reflected in the reported dfs, the analyses were based on complete data, except for heart rate, which, due to technical difficulties, was missing at one or more time points for two participants. Key analyses were repeated excluding the participant with the outlying MDMA dose 0. Similarly, re-analyses was conducted by excluding the three participants who insufflated their MDMA. The patterns of means, effect sizes and statistical significance i. Results The mean age of the participants 12 men, 8 women was They had All the participants provided 0. All participants reported abstinence from drugs including alcohol in the 24 h prior to both testing sessions, but all also reported use of some illicit substance in the 2 weeks preceding one or both sessions. As such, it is unlikely that differential effects reported below across sessions and between T2 and T3 the period when the CI task was performed can simply be attributed to continued increases in response to MDMA between T2 and T3, rather than to the additional effects of CI. Specifically, compared to T1, heart rate was Overall, this pattern of effects is consistent with enhancement of the effects of CI on self-compassion in the presence of MDMA. Even when considering only the first two time points i. F value. Kamboj et al. This suggests an increase in arousal in response to critical faces after either intervention separately, although the effect of CI alone was substantially smaller than that of MDMA. Possible associations were examined between EAT-SAM arousal and valence ratings to critical faces at T2 and T3, with Self-Compassion and Self-Criticism scores at the same time points but no significant correlations emerged. Discussion In this report, we extend previous findings on the effects of recreational ecstasy and compassionate imagery CI on self-attitudes. The primary findings in the current study were that MDMA and CI appeared to produce similar small to medium increases in self-compassion when administered separately. Note however that these effects were not based on placebo-controlled comparisons and must therefore be considered provisional. It has been suggested that arousal ratings in tasks such as the EAT-SAM represent an implicit index of emotional empathy Dziobek et al. As such, our main findings are not entirely consistent with a simple generalised enhancement of positive affect or demand characteristics. Although previous studies have also examined the effects of MDMA on emotional empathy, these have tended to use situational rather than facial stimuli reviewed by Kamilar-Britt and Bedi and have not specifically examined compassion and criticism. Unlike these previous studies, we did not find a generalised increase in emotional empathy or the more specific hypothesised increase in response to compassionate expressions in the presence of MDMA cf Kamilar-Britt and Bedi The specific effects of MDMA on critical i. This divergence may relate to our use of facial rather than situational affective stimuli generally or critical facial expressions in particular, which have not been used in previous studies. The apparently similar effects of CI and MDMA on state self-compassion rather than positive affect more generally, and on arousal to critical facial stimuli, rather than other emotion expressions might suggest a common biopsychological mechanism through which some behavioural and pharmacological strategies increase aspects of self-affiliation and emotional empathy. Alternatively, given its ostensible role in self- affiliation Rockliff et al. Our current and previous Kamboj et al. Whether the observations reported here have therapeutic relevance, however, remains an open question and would need to be the subject of separate careful study. A primary concern in such studies would be to determine if lasting beneficial effects on self-attitudes would be observed after a small number of doses of MDMA in combination with a compassion-oriented psychosocial strategy such as CI. If so, this would be in line with the existing model of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder Mithoefer et al. Moreover, it may be that such combination treatments would be applicable in those with specific vulnerabilities e. Limitations While our assessment of MDMA composition represents a methodological improvement to our previous study design, naturalistic studies have some clear limitations and can only be considered to be a starting point, paving the way for investigating the relevant phenomena in tightly controlled experimental contexts. The setting within which this study was conducted and critically, the participant group in whom it was conducted are important considerations. As a result, we cannot know, for example, the degree to which the findings would generalise to MDMA-naive participants or to those with whom compassion-oriented strategies are typically used in the context of psychopathology Gilbert Moreover, while highly controlled laboratory settings are clearly the preferred context within which to test drug effects, when subjective rather than implicit behavioural effects are the primary outcome, concerns about expectancy are not eliminated. In addition, since participants chose the amount of MDMA they consumed presumably based in their previous experience with the drug, and expectations about its likely effects on them , this inevitably introduced some variability in the effects of the drug. However, another potential limitation was that, while the participants indicated verbally that they had not consumed any drugs in the 24 h prior to testing, a sizeable proportion provided positive urine screens for illicit drugs. However, the slow clearance of some drugs means that their presence in urine does not necessarily imply non-compliance with abstinence instructions in the preceding 24 h. THC and benzodiazepines in particular have prolonged elimination kinetics Moeller et al. However, apart from alcohol which all the participants provided negative readings for , a more fine-grained quantitative analysis of recent drug use was not employed here. We aimed to use the most efficient design possible to preliminarily test our hypotheses. As such, additional control conditions e. Future tests of these ideas in laboratory-controlled experiments would need to carefully consider the issue of the number of control conditions and experimental sessions, as it is unclear whether the outcome measures used here would retain sensitivity to change within a more intensive testing schedule. Alternatively, less efficient between-subjects designs would be required. Overall, our findings suggest that further research on adaptive modification of intrapersonal attitudes following MDMA and its combined use with compassion-oriented behavioural strategies is warranted. Future related studies should employ randomised, double-blind controlled designs. Compliance with Ethical Standards Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Ethics Statement All procedures were performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and were in line with the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed Consent All the participants gave written informed consent at the start of the first session; all were made aware that they could withdraw from the study at any time without needing to give a reason. Meer informatie. Empathy deficits and trait emotional intelligence in psychopathy and Machiavellianism. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, — CrossRef Ali, F. Personality and Individual Differences, 47 , — San Antonio: Psychological Corporation. Beck, A. Oxytocin receptor gene variation predicts subjective responses to MDMA. Social Neuroscience, 11, — Social Neuroscience, 11 , — Measuring emotion: the Self-Assessment Manikin and the semantic differential. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25, 49— Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 25 , 49— CrossRef PubMed. Linking the pharmacological content of ecstasy tablets to the subjective experiences of drug users. Psychopharmacology, , — Oxytocin and human social behavior. 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International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 3, 97— CrossRef Gilbert, P. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 3 , 97— Feeling safe and content: a specific affect regulation system? Relationship to depression, anxiety, stress, and self-criticism. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, — Journal of Positive Psychology, 3 , — Fears of compassion and happiness in relation to alexithymia, mindfulness, and self-criticism. Psychology and Psychotherapy, 85, — Psychology and Psychotherapy, 85 , — Common variant in OXTR predicts growth in positive emotions from loving-kindness training. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 73, — Psychoneuroendocrinology, 73 , — Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29, — Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29 , — The prosocial effects of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA : controlled studies in humans and laboratory animals. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 57, — Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 57 , — Soothing oneself and resisting self-attacks: the treatment of two intrapersonal deficits in depression vulnerability. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33, CrossRef Kelly, A. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33 , Calculation of effect sizes. Psychometrica: Institut fur psychologische Diagnostik. Accessed 1 Feb Lenhard, W. The importance of targeting negative self-referential processing. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 20, — Clinical Psychology Science and Practice, 20 , — Durability of improvement in post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and absence of harmful effects or drug dependency after 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy: a prospective long-term follow-up study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 27, 28— Journal of Psychopharmacology, 27 , 28— Novel psychopharmacological therapies for psychiatric disorders: psilocybin and MDMA. Lancet Psychiatry, 3, — Lancet Psychiatry, 3 , — Urine drug screening: practical guide for clinicians. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 83, 66— Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 83 , 66— Impact of cannabidiol on the acute memory and psychotomimetic effects of smoked cannabis: naturalistic study. British Journal of Psychiatry, , — Bringing together pharmacological and psychological approaches to mental health research. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3, — The Lancet Psychiatry, 3 , — Effects of Schedule I drug laws on neuroscience research and treatment innovation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14, — Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14 , — PsychoPy—psychophysics software in Python. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, , 8— Facial shape and judgements of female attractiveness. Nature, , — Effects of sexual dimorphism on facial attractiveness. Mind of the meditator. Scientific American, , 38— On the validity of the Beck Depression Inventory. A review. 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The NimStim set of facial expressions: judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, , — New age seekers: MDMA use as an adjunct to spiritual pursuit. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 23, — Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 23 , — Vasopressin and oxytocin secretion in response to the consumption of ecstasy in a clubbing population. Drug, set, and setting: the basis for controlled intoxicant use. New Haven: Yale University Press. Zinberg, N. Auteurs Sunjeev K. Kamboj Ylva S. Blagbrough Stephen M. Husbands Tom P. Publicatiedatum Uitgeverij Springer US.

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