Just Dominate

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Just Dominate
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From the Editors at Merriam-Webster
Some of the words that defined the week ending June 5, 2020
“Dominate.” Merriam-Webster.com Thesaurus , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/dominate. Accessed 10 Sep. 2022.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"" phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire
For the album by Adagio, see Dominate (album) .

Principate 27 BC – AD 284
Dominate AD 284–641


Western AD 395–476
Eastern AD 395–1453

Further information: Late Roman army

^ Jump up to: a b Menne, I., Power and Status in the Roman Empire, AD 193–284 (2011) p. 21

^ Kuhoff, Wolfgang (2002). "Die diokletianische Tetrarchie als Epoche einer historischen Wende in antiker und moderner Sicht". International Journal of the Classical Tradition. 9 (2): 177–178. doi:10.1007/BF02898434 JSTOR 30224306

^ Lee, A. D., From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome (2013) p. xiii

^ Mitchell, S., A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641 (2014), Chapter 1

^ Cambridge Ancient History , Vol. XI, The High Empire (2008) p. 82

^ Shorter, D., Rome and her Empire (2014) p. 174

^ Cambridge Ancient History , Vol. XI, The High Empire (2008) p. 81

^ Watson, A., Aurelian and the Third Century (2004) p. 188

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 12–13

^ Bray, J. J., Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics (1997) p. 2; Körner, C., Aurelian (A.D. 270–275) , De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001)

^ Jump up to: a b Körner, C., Aurelian (A.D. 270–275) , De Imperatoribus Romanis (2001)

^ Bray, J. J., Gallienus: A Study in Reformist and Sexual Politics (1997) pp. 2–3

^ Bennett, J. Trajan, Optimus Princeps: A Life and Times (1997) pp.108-111

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 246

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 25

^ Bury, J. B., A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893) pp. 28–30

^ Bury, J. B., A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893) pp. 23–26

^ Bury, J. B., A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893) pp. 20; 523

^ Watson, A. Aurelian and the Third Century (2004) p. 5; Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 251–2

^ Bury, J. B., A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893) p. 38

^ Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) pp.1–2

^ Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) p.1

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bagnall, R. S.; Cameron, A.; Schwartz, S. R.; Worp, K. A., Consuls of the later Roman Empire (1987) p.2

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 254–255

^ Jones, A. H. M., The Later Roman Empire (1964) pp. 525–526

^ Jump up to: a b Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 255

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 18; Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 255

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 255; Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 25

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 26–28

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 27–28

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 32–33

^ Bowman, A. K. Provincial Administration and Taxation in The Cambridge Ancient History Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire 43 B.C. – A.D. 69 (1996) p. 353

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 19; 34

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 34

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 257

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 153–157

^ Jones, A. H. M., The Later Roman Empire (1964) p. 371

^ Kelly, Christopher. Bureaucracy and Government . In Lenski, Noel. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine (2006), p. 187; Jones, A. H. M., The Later Roman Empire (1964) p. 101

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 271–273

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 35

^ Jump up to: a b Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 36

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 36–37

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 63

^ Halsberghe, G. H., The Cult of Sol Invictus (1972) pp. 152; 162

^ Lieu, S. N. C., Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China: A Historical Survey (1985) p. 93

^ Sextus Aurelius Victor ; Bird, H. W. Liber de Caesaribus (1994) pp. 161–162; Rees, R. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (2004) p. 46

^ Rees, R. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (2004) pp. 54–55

^ Williams, S. Diocletian and the Roman Recovery (1996) p. 203

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 280

^ Rees, R. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (2004) p. 206

^ Jump up to: a b c Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 281

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 64

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), pp. 64–65

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 65

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 88

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 88–89

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 144; 180

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) p. 180

^ Southern, P. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2001) pp. 180–181

^ Bury, J. B. History of the Later Roman Empire From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Vol I (1958), p. 163

^ Jump up to: a b Mackay, Christopher (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History . New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 298. ISBN 0521809185 .

^ Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2009). "Conclusion: A Simple Answer". How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower . New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. pp. 405 –415. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4 . OCLC 262432329 . Retrieved 28 July 2011 .


The Dominate , also known as the late Roman Empire is the name sometimes given to the " despotic " later phase of imperial government, following the earlier period known as the " Principate ", in the ancient Roman Empire . Until the empire was reunited in 313, this phase is more often called the Tetrarchy . [1] [2]

It may begin with the commencement of the reign of Diocletian in AD 284, following the Third Century Crisis of AD 235–284, and to end in the west with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476, while in the east its end is disputed, as either occurring at the close of the reign of Justinian I (AD 565) [3] or of Heraclius (AD 641). [4] In form, the Dominate is considered [ by whom? ] to have been more authoritarian, less collegial and more bureaucratic than the Principate from which it emerged.

The modern term dominate is derived from the Latin dominus , which translates into English as lord or master. Dominus , traditionally used by Roman slaves to address their masters, was sporadically used in addressing emperors throughout the Principate, usually in the form of excessive flattery (or political invective) when referring to the emperor. [5] Augustus actively discouraged the practice, and Tiberius in particular is said to have reviled it as sycophancy. [6] Domitian encouraged its use, [7] but none of the emperors used the term in any semi-official capacity until the reign of Aurelian in AD 274, where coins were issued bearing the inscription deus et dominus natus . [8]

However, it was only under Diocletian that the term dominus was adopted as part of the emperor's official titulature, forming part of Diocletian's radical reforms. [1]

The Dominate system of government emerged as a response to the 50 years of chaos that is referred to as the Crisis of the Third Century . The stresses and strains of those years (chronic usurpations, military insurrections, simultaneous military conflicts across multiple frontiers) exposed the weaknesses in the Roman state under the Principate, and saw a gradual movement from the collegiate model of government that existed prior to AD 235 to a more formally autocratic version that begins after AD 285. [9] In broad terms, it saw the gradual exclusion of the senatorial elite from high military commands and the parallel elevation of the equestrian orders, the reorganisation of the armed forces and the creation of mobile field armies, changes in imperial dress and ceremonial displays, a religious policy aiming at religious unity, large scale monetary reforms, and the creation of an empire-wide civil bureaucracy. [10]

Although Diocletian is commonly thought of as creator of the Dominate, its origins lie in the innovations of earlier emperors, principally those undertaken by Aurelian (AD 270–275). [11] Some reforms stretch back to the reigns of Gallienus (AD 253–268) [12] and Trajan (AD 98–117), during whose reign " knights were given an escalating importance in the administration of Rome and the empire." [13] Not all the changes that produced the 'Dominate' were completed by the time of Diocletian's abdication in AD 305; many changes were either introduced or modified by Constantine I . Consequently, just as the Principate emerged over the period 31 BC through to 14 AD, it is only by AD 337 that the reforms that resulted in the Dominate were largely complete. [14]

In the opinion of the historian John Bagnall Bury , the system of government,

constructed with the most careful attention to details, was a solution of the formidable problem of holding together a huge heterogeneous empire, threatened with dissolution and bankruptcy, an empire which was far from being geographically compact and had four long, as well as several smaller, frontiers to defend. To govern a large state by two independent but perfectly similar machines, controlled not from one centre but from two foci, without sacrificing its unity was an interesting and entirely new experiment. These bureaucratic machines worked moderately well, and their success might have been extraordinary if the monarchs who directed them had always been men of superior ability. Blots of course and defects there were, especially in the fields of economy and finance. The political creation of the Illyrian Emperors was not unworthy of the genius of Rome. [15]
Under the Principate , the position of emperor saw the concentration of various civil and military offices within a single magistracy . [16] Augustus and his successors usually took great care to disguise the autocratic nature of the office by hiding behind the institutions of the Roman Republic and the fiction that the emperor was simply the princeps or first citizen, whose authority was granted by the Senate . This role was almost always filled by a single individual, and the date that the Potestas tribunicia was conferred onto that person was the point when imperial authority could be exercised. [17] Over the course of the Principate, it became common for the emperor (or Augustus ) to nominate an heir (referred to as the Caesar ), but the caesar did not have access to the powers of the emperor, nor was he delegated any official authority. [18]

It was during the Crisis of the Third Century that the traditional imperial approach of a single imperial magistrate based at Rome became unable to cope with multiple and simultaneous invasions and usurpations that required the emperor to be everywhere at once. Further, it was their absence which caused usurpations to occur in response to a local or provincial crisis that traditionally would have been dealt with by the emperor. [19]

Under the Dominate, the burden of the imperial position was increasingly shared between colleagues, referred to as the Consortium imperii . It was Diocletian who introduced this form of government, under a system called the Tetrarchy , which originally consisted of two co-emperors ( augusti ) and two respectively subordinate junior emperors ( caesars ), each of whom shared in the imperial power. This original power sharing model lasted from AD 289 through to AD 324, being undone during the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy . With Constantine I 's death in AD 337, the empire was again shared between multiple augusti , lasting until AD 350. The model became a permanent feature of the empire in AD 364 with the accession of Valentinian I , who shared the imperial office with his brother Valens . Barring the 3-year period of solitary rule by Theodosius I from AD 392–395, this approach would last until the overthrow of the last western emperor in AD 476.

While each augustus was autonomous within each portion of the empire they managed, all laws that were introduced by any emperor were valid across the entirety of the empire.

During the Roman Republic , the office of Consul was the highest elected magistracy in the Roman state, with two consuls elected annually. With the arrival of the Principate, although all real power was invested in the emperor, the consuls were still in theory the head of state, and the calendar year was identified by the two ordinary consuls who began in office at the start of the year. [20] Throughout the Principate, the imperial consulate was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration – only former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome. [21]

Consequently, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors. It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others. [22] If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned. [23]

Under the Dominate, the loss of many pre-consular functions and the encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls. [23] This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger. [23] As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators – the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian praetorian prefects (who were given the ornamenta consularia upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves cos. II when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor. [23] All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by time of the Dominate, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded. [23]

One of the key changes in the management of the empire during the Dominate was the large scale removal of old-style senatorial participation in administrative and military functions. The process began with the reforms of Gallienus, who removed senators from military commands, placing them in the hands of the Equites . [24]

Under Diocletian, the military equestrian transformation was taken a stage further, with the removal of hereditary senators from most administrative, as well as military, posts (such as the Legatus legionis ). Hereditary senators were limited to administrative jobs in Italy and a few neighbouring provinces (Sicily, Africa, Achaea and Asia), despite the fact that senior administrative posts had been greatly multiplied by
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