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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Tegal language" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Tegali language .
Basa (language) written in the Javanese script
Kawi (Early standard form)
Surakartan Javanese (Modern standard form)
Dark green: areas where Javanese is the majority language. Light green: where it is a minority language.
^ Dyen's "Malayic" differ from the latter, narrower conception of "Malayic" by Alexander Adelaar. Dyen's Malayic includes Madurese , Acehnese , and Malayan (=Adelaar's Malayic).
^ Sukarno has a Javanese father and a Balinese mother, Habibie has a father of Gorontalo descent and a Javanese mother, while Megawati is Sukarno 's daughter through his wife, who is from Bengkulu .
^ The Old Javanese spelling is modified to suit Modern Javanese spelling.
^ For example Pigeaud's dictionary in 1939 is almost exclusively based on Surakarta speech (1939:viii–xiii).
^ The data are taken from the census of 1980 as provided by James J. Fox and Peter Gardiner and published by S. A. Wurm and Shiro Hattori, eds. 1983. Language Atlas of the Pacific Area, Part II: (Insular South-East Asia) , Canberra.
^ The distribution of persons living in Javanese-speaking households in East Java and Lampung requires clarification. For East Java, daily-language percentages are as follows: 74.5 Javanese, 23.0 Madurese, and 2.2 Indonesian. For Lampung, the official percentages are 62.4 Javanese, 16.4 Lampungese and other languages, 10.5 Sundanese, and 9.4 Indonesian. The figures are somewhat outdated for some regions, especially Jakarta; but they remain more or less stable for the rest of Java. In Jakarta the number of Javanese has increased tenfold in the last 25 years. On the other hand, because of the conflict the number of Javanese in Aceh might have decreased. It is also relevant that Banten has separated from West Java province in 2000.
^ Many commuters to Jakarta live in the suburbs in Banten, among them also Javanese speakers. Their exact number is unknown.
^ Unfortunately, the aspirated phonemes of Madurese are not reproduced in writing. The 19th-century scribes apparently overlooked the fact that Javanese script does possess the required characters.
^ Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in Nationalencyklopedin
^ Jump up to: a b c "Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa" .
^ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook , Edinburgh
^ Kewarganegaraan, Suku Bangsa, Agama dan Bahasa Sehari-hari Penduduk Indonesia - Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2010 . Badan Pusat Statistik. 2011. ISBN 978-979-064-417-5 . Archived from the original on 10 July 2017.
^ "Javanese language" . britannica.com . Encyclopedia Britannica. 2010 . Retrieved 17 March 2021 .
^ Akhyari Hananto (8 December 2017). "121 Years of Javanese People in New Caledonia" . Seasia: Good News from Southeast Asia .
^ Dyen 1965 , p. 26.
^ Nothofer 2009 , p. 560.
^ Nothofer 1975 , p. 1.
^ Blust 1981 .
^ Jump up to: a b Adelaar 2005 , pp. 357, 385.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ogloblin 2005 , p. 590.
^ Blust 2010 , p. 97.
^ Smith 2017 , pp. 443, 453–454.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wedhawati et al. 2006 , p. 1.
^ Wedhawati et al. , p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWedhawatiNurlinaSetiyantoSukesti ( help )
^ Jump up to: a b Wedhawati et al. 2006 , p. 2.
^ Wedhawati et al. 2006 , p. 8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ogloblin 2005 , p. 591.
^ Jump up to: a b Wedhawati et al. 2006 , p. 11.
^ Van der Molen (1983:VII-VIII).
^ Peraturan Daerah Provinsi Jawa Tengah Nomor 9 Tahun 2012 tentang Bahasa, Sastra, Dan Aksara Jawa
^ Jump up to: a b c d Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (2008). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world . Elsevier. p. 560. ISBN 9780080877747 . Retrieved 24 May 2010 . Madurese also possesses aspirated phonemes, including at least one aspirated retroflex phoneme.
^ Jump up to: a b Suharno, Ignatius (1982). A Descriptive Study of Javanese . Canberra: ANU Asia-Pacific Linguistics / Pacific Linguistics Press. pp. 4–6. doi : 10.15144/PL-D45 . hdl : 1885/145095 .
^ Perwitasari, Arum; Klamer, Marian; Witteman, Jurriaan; Schiller, Niels O. (2017). "Quality of Javanese and Sundanese Vowels". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society . 10 (2): 1–9. hdl : 10524/52406 .
^ Ladefoged, Peter ; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages . Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19815-4 .
^ Piwulang Basa Jawa Pepak, S.B. Pramono, hal 148, Babad Hanacaraka, 2013
^ Zoetmulder (1982:IX).
^ Uhlenbeck (1964:57).
^ Jump up to: a b Wolff, John U.; Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo (1982). Communicative Codes in Central Java . Cornell Southeast Asia Program. p. 4. ISBN 0-87727-116-X .
^ Jump up to: a b Kroon, Sjaak; Yağmur, Kutlay (2012), Meertaligheid in het onderwijs in Suriname [ Multilingualism in education in Suriname ] (PDF) (in Dutch), Den Haag: Nederlandse Taalunie, ISBN 978-90-70593-19-3
^ Jump up to: a b Gobardhan-Rambocus, Lila; Sarmo, Johan (1993). "Het Surinaams Javaans" [The Javanese Surinamese] (PDF) . In Gobardhan-Rambocus, Lila; Hassankhan, Maurits S. (eds.). Immigratie en ontwikkeling : emancipatieproces van contractanten [ Immigration and development: emancipation of contractors ] (in Dutch). Paramaribo: Anton de Kom Universiteit. pp. 184–201.
^ Villerius, S. E. (2019). Development of Surinamese Javanese: Language contact and change in a multilingual context (Ph.D. thesis). Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen. hdl : 2066/199947 . ISBN 978-94-6093-313-4 .
^ Jump up to: a b "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology > Documentation of Banyumasan" . MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station . Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology > Madiun – Kediri Dialect" . MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station . Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
^ "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology" . MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station . Archived from the original on 13 May 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology > Pemalangan Dialect (Pesisir Lor)" . MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station . Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
^ Conners, Thomas J. (26 April 2010). "Standard vs. Peripheral Javanese Dialects: The Lexical Evidence" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2011 . Retrieved 23 November 2013 .
^ "Jakarta Field Station > Projects > Javanese Dialectology > Osing Dialect" . MPI EVA Jakarta Field Station . Archived from the original on 14 May 2011.
^ Adelaar, Alexander (2011). "Javanese - aké and - akən : A Short History" . Oceanic Linguistics . 50 (2): 338–350. doi : 10.1353/ol.2011.0024 . ISSN 1527-9421 .
^ In 1980 this included the now separate Banten province.
^ According to James J. Fox and Peter Gardiner (Wurm and Hattori, 1983).
^ Collins Concise Dictionary Plus (1989).
^ Pigeaud (1967:10-11).
^ Bartje S. Setrowidjojo and Ruben T. Setrowidjojo Het Surinaams-Javaans = Tyoro Jowo-Suriname , Den Haag: Suara Jawa, 1994, ISBN 90-802125-1-2 .
^ Piwulang Basa Jawa Pepak, S.B. Pramono, hal 148, 2013
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Javanese ( / dʒ ɑː v ə ˈ n iː z / ); [3] Basa Jawa ; Aksara Jawa : ꦧꦱꦗꦮ ; Pegon : باساجاوا ; Javanese pronunciation: [bɔsɔ d͡ʒɔwɔ] ) is the language of the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java , in Indonesia . There are also pockets of Javanese speakers on the northern coast of western Java. It is the native language of more than 98 million people [4] (more than 42% of the total population of Indonesia).
Javanese is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers . It has several regional dialects and a number of clearly distinct status styles. [5] Its closest relatives are the neighboring languages such as Sundanese , Madurese , and Balinese . Most speakers of Javanese also speak Indonesian for the official and commercial purposes as well as a means to communicate with non-Javanese-speaking Indonesians .
There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia (concentrated in the West Coast part of the states of Selangor and Johor ) and Singapore . Javanese is also spoken by traditional immigrant communities of Javanese descent in Suriname , Sri Lanka and New Caledonia . [6]
Javanese is part of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family, although its precise relationship to other Malayo-Polynesian languages is hard to determine. Using lexicostatistical method, Isidore Dyen classified Javanese as part of the "Javo-Sumatra Hesion", which also includes the Sundanese and "Malayic" languages. [a] [7] [8] This grouping is also called "Malayo-Javanic" by linguist Berndt Nothofer, who was the first to attempt a reconstruction of it based on only four languages with best attestation at the time (Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese , and Malay ). [9]
Malayo-Javanic has been criticized and rejected by various linguists. [10] [11] Alexander Adelaar does not include Javanese in his proposed Malayo-Sumbawan grouping (which also covers Malayic , Sundanese, and Madurese languages). [11] [12] Robert Blust also does not include Javanese in the Greater North Borneo subgroup, which he proposes as an alternative to Malayo-Sumbawan grouping. However, Blust also expresses the possibility that Greater North Borneo languages are closely related to many other western Indonesian languages, including Javanese. [13] Blust's suggestion has been further elaborated by Alexander Smith, who includes Javanese in the Western Indonesian grouping (which also includes GNB and several other subgroups), which Smith considers as one of Malayo-Polynesian's primary branches. [14]
In general, the history of the Javanese language can be divided into two distinct phases: 1) Old Javanese and 2) New Javanese. [12] [15]
The earliest attested form of Old Javanese can be found in the Sukabumi inscription , which dates from 804 CE. [16] Between the 9th and the 15th century, this form of Javanese flourished in the island of Java. Old Javanese is commonly written in the form of verses. This language variety is also called kawi or 'of poets, poetical', although this term could also be used to refer to the archaic elements of New Javanese literature. [12] The writing system used to write Old Javanese is a descendant of the Pallava script from India. [17] Almost half of the entire vocabularies found in Old Javanese literature are Sanskrit loanwords, although Old Javanese also borrowed terms from other languages in the Maritime Southeast Asia . [12] [17]
The form of Old Javanese found in several texts from 14th century onward (mostly written in Bali) is sometimes referred to as "Middle Javanese". Both Old and Middle Javanese written forms are no longer widely used in Java since early 16th century. However, Old Javanese works and poetic tradition continue to be preserved in the Javanese-influenced Bali, and the variety is also used for religious purpose. [12] [18]
Modern Javanese emerged as the main literary form of Javanese in the 16th century. The change in the literary system happened as Islam started to gain influence in Java. [15] In its early form, Modern Javanese literary form was based on the variety spoken in the north coast of Java , where Islam had already gained foothold among the local people. Many of the written works in this variety were Islamic in nature, and several of them were translation from works in Malay. [19] The Arabic abjad was also adopted (as Pegon ) to write Javanese. [15] [19]
The rise of Mataram in the 17th century shifted the main literary form of Javanese to be based on the inland variety. This written tradition of Javanese was preserved by writers of Surakarta and Yogyakarta , and later became the basis of the modern written standard of Javanese. [19] Another linguistic development associated with the rise of Mataram is the stratification of Javanese into speech levels such as ngoko and krama . [20] Speech levels were unknown in Old Javanese. [19] [20]
Books in Javanese were printed since 1830s, at first using the Javanese script , although the Latin alphabet started to be used later. Since mid-19th century, Javanese started to be used in newspapers and travelogue, and later on, also novels, short stories, as well as free verses. Today, Javanese is used in many media, ranging from books to TV programs, and the language is also taught at schools in primarily Javanese areas.
The language is spoken in Yogyakarta , Central and East Java , as well as on the north coast of West Java and Banten . It is also spoken elsewhere by the Javanese people in other provinces of Indonesia, which are numerous due to the government-sanctioned transmigration program in the late 20th century, including Lampung , Jambi , and North Sumatra provinces. In Suriname, Javanese is spoken among descendants of plantation migrants brought by the Dutch during the 19th century. In Madura, Bali, Lombok, and the Sunda region of West Java, it is also used as a literary language . It was the court language in Palembang , South Sumatra , until the palace was sacked by the Dutch in the late 18th century.
Javanese is written with the Latin script , Javanese script , and Arabic script . [21] In the present day, the Latin script dominates writings, although the Javanese script is still taught as part of the compulsory Javanese language subject in elementary up to high school levels in Yogyakarta, Central and East Java.
Javanese is the tenth largest language by native speakers and the largest language without official status at the national level . It is spoken or understood by approximately 100 million people. At least 45% of the total population of Indonesia are of Javanese descent or live in an area where Javanese is the dominant language. All seven Indonesian presidents since 1945 have been of Javanese descent. [b] It is therefore not surprising that Javanese has had a deep influence on the development of Indonesian, the national language of Indonesia .
There are three main dialects of the modern language: Central Javanese, Eastern Javanese, and Western Javanese. These three dialects form a dialect continuum from northern Banten in the extreme west of Java to Banyuwangi Regency in the eastern corner of the island. All Javanese dialects are more or less mutually intelligible .
Javanese is designated as the official language of the Special Region of Yogyakarta under Yogyakarta Special Region Regulation Number 2 of 2021. [2] Previously, Central Java promulgated a similar regulation—Regional Regulation 9/2012 [22] —but this did not imply an official status for the language.
The phonemes of Modern Standard Javanese as shown below. [23] [24]
In closed syllables the vowels /i u e o/ are pronounced [ɪ ʊ ɛ ɔ] respectively. [23] [25] In open syllables, /e o/ are also [ɛ ɔ] when the following vowel is /i u/ in an open syllable; otherwise they are /ə/ , or identical ( /e...e/, /o...o/ ). In the standard dialect of Surakarta, /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] in word-final open syllables, and in any open penultimate syllable before such an [ɔ] .
The Javanese "voiced" phonemes are not in fact voiced but voiceless, with breathy voice on the following vowel. [23] The relevant distinction in phonation of the plosives is described as stiff voice versus slack voice . [26] [24]
A Javanese syllable can have the following form : CSVC, where C = consonant , S = sonorant ( /j/, /r/, /l/, /w/ , or any nasal consonant ), and V = vowel . As with other Austronesian languages, native Javanese roots consist of two syllables; words consisting of more than three syllables are broken up into groups of disyllabic words for pronunciation. In Modern Javanese, a disyllabic root is of the following type: nCsvVnCsvVC.
Apart from Madurese , Javanese is the only language of Western Indonesia to possess a distinction between dental and retroflex phonemes. [23] The latter sounds are transcribed as "th" and "dh" in the modern Roman script, but previously by the use of an underdot : "ṭ" and "ḍ".
Javanese, like many other Austronesian languages, is an agglutinative language, where base words are modified through extensive use of affixes .
Modern Javanese usually employs SVO word order. However, Old Javanese sometimes had VSO and sometimes VOS word order. Even in Modern Javanese, archaic sentences using VSO structure can still be made.
Both sentences mean: "He (S) comes (V) into (pp.) the (def. art.) palace (O)". In the Old Javanese sentence, the verb is placed at the beginning and is separated by the particle ta from the rest of the sentence. In Modern Javanese the definite article is lost, and definiteness is expressed by other means if necessary.
Verbs are not inflected for person or number. There is no grammatical tense ; time is expressed by auxiliary words meaning "yesterday", "already", etc. There is a complex system of verb affixes to express differences of status in subject and object. However, in general the structure of Javanese sentences both Old and Modern can be described using the topic–comment model , without having to refer to conventional grammatical categories. The topic is the head of the sentence; the comment is the modifier. So the example sentence has a simpler description: Dhèwèké = topic ; teka = comment; ing karaton = setting.
Javanese has a rich and varied vocabulary, with many loanwords supplementing those from the native Austronesian base. Sanskrit has had a deep and lasting impact. The Old J
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Javanese 18 School Girl
