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By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. To browse Academia. International Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, WSEAS transactions on business and economics, Log in with Facebook Log in with Google. Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Need an account? Click here to sign up. Partnering with farmers to accelerate adoption of new technologies in South Asia to improve wheat productivity Dhruba Thapa. Adapting wheat cultivars to resource conserving farming practices and human nutritional needs Matthew Reynolds. Wheat productivity under supplemental irrigation in Northern Iraq Theib Oweis. Food Syst. A survey of different wheat fields of different sizes, located in different agricultural zones in Tajikistan and at different altitudes, was conducted during three consecutive years — A questionnaire on wheat production and sustainability, seeking overall information about farms and specific data on crop management practices, was applied. It was accompanied by surveillance of field status concerning diseases, pests, weeds, and influence of abiotic stresses. In addition, a screening was carried out on major Tajik wheat varieties and advanced breeding lines, to assess their resistance to important diseases. The results showed that the agronomic knowledge of Tajik farmers was generally poor and that wheat yield was low, affecting social, economic, and environmental sustainability. The farms surveyed were generally small, growing winter wheat for human consumption year after year. Seeds were hand-broadcast at the optimal sowing time, without chemical treatments and either wheat or technical crops were used as preceding crops. Most farmers used nitrogen fertilizer and irrigation but no weed treatment. The low knowledge status of wheat farmers influenced crop performance and were correlated with lack of crop rotation, while the lack of pest management resulted in high levels of weeds and severe insect damage. While some similarities were shared by most wheat fields surveyed, there was also some variation in wheat crop performance among farms in relation to their size, year of study, agricultural zone, and altitude. Wheat production on small farms still relied heavily on manual labor, while larger farms used more machinery. However, larger farms were not more successful wheat producers than small farms. Most of the Tajik wheat varieties and lines screened were found to be susceptible to at least one of the diseases screened for, i. Our findings demonstrate a need for concerted action to overcome wheat yield constraints and achieve sustainability in crop production in Tajikistan. Education of farmers appears key to improving social, Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems www. Sustainable Wheat Production in Tajikistan economic, and environmental sustainability. Use of certified seed of suitable wheat varieties and appropriate crop management practices, including weed control while also taking biodiversity into consideration, are other important measures for increasing wheat yield and improving sustainability. However, the current wheat yield in Tajikistan is low in comparison with that in neighboring countries, e. Tajikistan is known as a hotspot of biodiversity due to its varied mountainous landscape, with habitats ranging from deserts to glaciers and frozen mountains Fauna Flora International, The Pamir regions are known as a rich habitat for local tree species and varieties of e. Giuliani et al. Tajikistan is also the home of many unique wheat types, including dwarf wheat and sphere grain wheat, and of most legumes peas, lentil, chickpea, common bean, golden bean, horse bean , and is the center of diversity for rye, mustard, flax, safflower, cotton-guza, etc. Muminjanov, This widespread presence of weeds is a serious issue for wheat production in Tajikistan, hampering safe and secure food production for the population through decreased yield and through the harvested grain comprising a mixture of wheat and weed seeds. Weed management is currently completely lacking in many wheat fields and, when carried out at all, it involves either hand weeding or hoeing Nowak et al. Another issue for crop production in Tajikistan is the negative impact of pests and diseases on yields. Wheat rusts, especially stripe rust Puccinia striiformis f. Significant yield losses due to stripe rust outbreaks have been reported during epidemic years Rahmatov et al. Further, yield and quality reductions in wheat grain are caused by attacks of the major insect pests, i. Previous studies have identified increased effectiveness of seed production for cereal crops Muminov, and improved wheat management technologies Rashidov, as key measures for increasing the security of wheat production in Tajikistan. However, yield still remains low, calling for further concerted actions to increase yield simultaneously with securing environmental sustainability. This requires multifaceted research to identify the major constraints within wheat production and sustainable ways forward to secure yield, and Sustainability is commonly described as resting upon three pillars, i. Thus, equal consideration should be given to social equity, livability, community development, etc. However, this approach has been criticized for dividing sustainability into separate realms, and the necessity to find an integrated way forward has been highlighted Boyer et al. In an agricultural context, sustainable crop production systems involve enhanced biodiversity and living soils, use of integrated pest management, and low greenhouse gas emissions, while simultaneously producing high-quality food and sustaining food security Imadi et al. Sustainable and successful crop production should thus comprise: i development of farming and stable livelihoods for farmers, together with ii high biodiversity and low carbon footprint, and iii high, secure, and safe yield of high quality and stability in provision of food for end-users. Various factors can negatively impact the security, safety, and quality of crop production, with diseases, pests, weeds, animal pests, and abiotic factors being the most important factors Oerke, ; Savary et al. Strategies to combat these biotic and abiotic stresses, without affecting biodiversity, soil micro-environments, and carbon footprint, are essential. Continuous monitoring and strategy development is required for managing different agricultural crops at national and international levels Park et al. Tajikistan is amongst the poorest countries in the world, with high levels of hunger and undernourishment FAO, ; WFP, The crop is widely grown throughout Tajikistan, from m above sea level masl in Tajik Delvarzin in the northwest, near the border with Uzbekistan, to 3, masl in Western Pamirs Muminjanov et al. Overall wheat production in was tons, with an average yield of about 2. Despite the clear dominance of wheat over other crops in Tajikistan, domestic production cannot meet domestic demand, so imports, primarily from Kazakhstan, are required. Price fluctuations and instability on the world market led to increased domestic wheat production being set as a major Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems www. Sustainable Wheat Production in Tajikistan in some places humid zones in the foothills; and iv cold, dry, less fertile highlands in the east. The present survey was designed to cover the main areas where cereals are grown in Tajikistan, and therefore fields were classified based on their geographical and administrative location into seven zones ZI-ZVII Figure 1 and Table 1. The aim of the present study was thus to evaluate and define the major constraints affecting wheat yield and the sustainability economic, social, and environmental of wheat production in Tajikistan. Specific objectives were: 1 to gain knowledge about farming practices; 2 to assess the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on wheat yield; 3 to understand sustainability issues, including impacts on the economy, society, and the environment, of the Tajik wheat production system; and 4 to identify actions necessary to increase the yield and sustainability economic, social, and environmental of Tajik wheat production. The intention was to provide a multi-faceted understanding of the major constraints to increasing the yield of wheat in Tajikistan and of the concerted actions needed for achieving sustainability high yield, and thereby good economic and social development, without hampering biodiversity and the environment of wheat production, and securing high yield of good quality. Due to the importance of wheat as a staple crop world-wide, the findings of the study can also be applicable in actions to achieve a sustainable increase in production of staple crops in other developing countries. To enhance the opportunities for higher wheat yield, without increasing chemical inputs and decreasing biodiversity, and thereby hampering sustainability in the production system, farmers need better access to resistant, and high-yielding varieties. Therefore, in this study the major wheat varieties and advanced breeding lines in Tajikistan were screened for resistance to the most important diseases common bunt, stripe rust, and leaf rust and their potential as parents within the national breeding program was assessed. Survey Form Plants in the surveyed fields were mostly at anthesis and early maturation stage growth stage 55—75 on the Zadoks scale Zadoks et al. The timing of the field survey was chosen to ensure that questions in the questionnaire were covered and to gain as much information as possible from the observations, especially regarding the occurrence of major diseases and possible effect of abiotic stresses. The questionnaire in Tajik defined classifications for different variables Table 2 , and consisted of three main parts: i General farm information, included the address, ownership, and contacts for a farm and information on cereals grown on the farm. All the major small-grain cereals i. In total, fields were surveyed over the 3-years study period, with 53 wheat fields surveyed in , 77 fields in , and 80 fields in The surveyed fields were divided according to district and agro-climate zone, as shown in Figure 1 and further defined in Table 1. Previous studies have also divided the country into agro-climatic zones, e. Later, simpler zone divisions have been suggested, e. Interviews were carried out orally, by authors BH and MO, who applied the questionnaire to a total of farmers. Assessment of the Fields Each surveyed field was assessed for crop performance, including the effects of drought and nutrient deficiency, deploying the 23 numbered variables according to their classification Table 2. Drought effect variable 15 was assessed visually by looking at plant leaves and constituents, as well as overall field and ground view. Nutrient deficiency variable 16 was also assessed visually in the plants. Common weeds were identified by morphological characteristics of the plants, following previous descriptions Pett and Muminjanov, b. Incidence of major foliar diseases, such as stripe rust variable 19 , leaf rust variable 20 , and stem rust variable 21 , was assessed and classified into different levels Table 2. In cases of obviously higher incidences, several sampling areas of 1 m2 were randomly inspected and percentage infection was calculated as the proportion of infected plants in all inspected plants. A total of 38 varieties were identified and selected for screening, based on available reports and articles e. Grain samples were collected at harvest in and and sent to Turkey for screening in controlled experiments during the — growing season for the major diseases stripe rust, leaf rust, and common bunt. The grain samples were grown at several locations in Turkey, with the main site at Trakya Agricultural Institute in Edirne. The insect damage level was rated as low Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems www. Sustainable Wheat Production in Tajikistan of 5 m2 with no replicates. Checks were planted after every 20 entries, and days to heading, height, and grain yield were recorded, in addition to leaf rust symptoms. Another nursery was established at the Central Field Crop Research Institute in Haymana 40 km from Ankara , for evaluation of stripe rust resistance under artificial inoculations. At this site, readings were taken twice, at grain formation and full maturity. A third nursery was established at the Maize Research Station in Adapazari, a hotspot for leaf rust, and readings were taken once during the season. The final trial on stripe rust was carried out on 16 June in Haymana, and the final trial on leaf rust on 27 May in Adapazari. The farmers who knew which wheat variety they were growing mentioned a total of 26 wheat varieties Table 3. Optimal planting time, defined for each agro-climate zone depending on the season, was based on previous research Mahmadyorov, and practical work. This information is also included in the guidelines and recommendations compiled by the Ministry of Agriculture and regional authorities Litvinov et al. Wheat crop evaluations revealed that the crop was mostly healthy, i. To compare the relationships between factors such as year, zone, altitude of cultivation, and farm size with the evaluated variables, a generalized linear model GLM followed by means separated with Tukey post hoc test was used. The statistical software SAS 9. In order to understand and visualize the distribution and relationship between variables and factors evaluated, principal component analysis PCA was applied to orthogonally represent the variables in a data matrix vector. PCA is known to show the distribution of dependent variables and independent factors, in a loading and score plot, respectively Wold et al. Here, we used PCA to evaluate the relationships between all variables for all factors in a loading plot and the relationships between each of the factors separately, presented in a joint score plot. All the wheat farmers whose fields were surveyed agreed to be interviewed. A reasonable number of farms 23—45 was also surveyed in most of the seven zones, making them suitable for comparisons. Balkhi, N. Shohin, Vose Hot on plains, cool at piedmont sites, relatively fertile soils, partially sufficient to sufficient precipitation —2, 7 19 4 12 3 10 41 Piedmont zones of Sughd region Sughd Ghonchi, Isfara, Istaravshan, Shahriston Hot days and cool nights, less fertile to relatively fertile soils, insufficient precipitation —1, 3 8 3 27 3 10 45 ZVI Plains zones of Sughd Region Sughd Asht, B. Ghafurov, J. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems www. Preceding crop Wheat 6 Other small-grain cereals barley, rye, oats, rice 58 Lodging Crop general view 38 32 Seed chemical treatment Yes Irrigation Weed control 25 19 16 Optimal 9. Fertilizer 1 2 3 Spring 8. Crop purpose No. Planting method No. Planting time No. Wheat variety knowledge Known 4. Crop season type Husenov et al. Husenov et al. Weed density 2 6 Leaf rust Stem rust Insect damage 1 10 Other diseases No. Loose smut No. Nutrient deficiency No. Krasnodar 99 8 ; 2. Irishka 7 ; 3. Starshina 6 ; 4. Lastochka 2 ; 5. Ekiz 1 ; 6. Irodi 1 ; 7. Safedak 1 ; 8. Ziroat 70 1 ; 9. Yusufi 1 ; Sila 1 ; Kazakhstan 1 ; Field with multiple varieties 1 ; Breeding trials 1 80 45 1. Sarvar 19 ; 2. Krasnodar 99 6 ; 3. Yusufi 4 ; 4. Sadokat 4 ; 5. Starshina 2 ; 6. Besribey 1 ; 7. Najibey 1 ; 8. Navruz 1 ; 9. Safedak 1 ; Irishka 1 ; Steklovidnaya 24 1 ; Vassa 1 ; Safedaki Ishkoshimi 1 ; Kilaki Bartang 1 1. Jayhun 3 ; 2. Krasnodar 99 3 ; 3. Starshina 3 ; 4. Irishka 1 ; 5. Atai 1 ; 6. Norman 1 ; 7. Surkhak 1 ; 8. Steklovidnaya 24 1 ; 9. Umanka 1 ; Sarvar 1 ; Siete-Cerros 66 1 ; Most fields were sown by hand broadcasting, at an optimal time in all zones, although a significantly higher proportion of fields were sown late in ZI and ZIII than in ZVI, and a higher proportion of fields in ZV were machine-sown than in the other zones Table 4, Tables S2, S3b , indicating a higher technological level on farms in ZV. No use of fertilizer was reported by farmers in ZVII. A higher level of nitrogen fertilizer use was reported by farms in ZV compared with ZIV, where the latter was the zone with the significantly highest proportion of rainfed fields, i. Low incidence of insect damage and a high degree of lodging and stripe rust were seen in ZVII Table 4, Tables S2, S3b , most likely due to the severe winters and short growing season in that zone. Generally, farmers from ZV seemed to be more technologically advanced, using seed drills, nitrogen fertilizer, having better knowledge of what wheat variety they were growing, and using crop rotation to a higher degree than farmers in other zones. Differences in Crop Performance Between Different Years The random selection of farms for the survey resulted in a significantly higher number of small wheat fields being surveyed in than in and Table 2. On selected farms, the purpose of wheat production was to a significantly higher extent for seed on farms surveyed in than on those surveyed in Tables 2, 4, Table S3a. Planting was carried out significantly more often at the optimal time and less often by hand broadcasting on farms surveyed in than on those surveyed in and Tables 2, 4, Table S3a. Irrigation was less common on the farms visited in than on those visited in and Tables 2, 4, Table S3a. The general view of the crop was less satisfactory on the farms surveyed in than on the farms surveyed in the other 2 years Tables 2, 4 , mainly due to a significantly higher amount of weeds in the fields in , which also resulted in a significantly higher degree of hand weeding Tables 2, 4, Table S3a. The major weed species recorded during all 3 years were: Convolvulus arvensis L. Drought effects were significantly more commonly observed on the farms surveyed in than in and , while loose smut was recorded significantly more frequently, and stripe rust and other diseases significantly less frequently, in than in the other 2 years Tables 2, 4, Table S3a. Drought effects were also observed relatively more frequently in irrigated compared with rainfed areas. Differences recorded between the study years might be the result of different farms being selected in different years, but also of general environmental weather-related events and pest outbreaks influencing cultivation environments. Farms at altitude —1, masl showed more technological cultivation, as they grew wheat for seed production and used seed drills, fertilizers, and irrigation more commonly than farms at other altitudes, although drought effects were more commonly seen Table 2, Tables S2, S3c. Most factors were also not affected by farm size. The use of wheat grain for food might indicate that a higher proportion of the grain is used for direct home consumption. Generally, the effect of the previous crop was significantly low for most of the factors evaluated Table 4, Table S3e. Sustainable Wheat Production in Tajikistan TABLE 4 Mean square values from generalized linear model GLM analyses comparing relationships between year, agricultural zone, altitude, farm size, and crop rotation and various variables. Table S3e. Fertilizer was significantly more commonly used on wheat grown after a Fabaceae crops than on wheat grown after wheat or other crops Table 4, Table S3e. Wheat grown after wheat, a Fabaceae crop, or another crop was significantly more commonly rainfed than wheat grown after another cereal, a technical crop, or vegetable crop, which were more commonly irrigated, while drought effects were significantly more commonly seen on wheat grown after technical crops than after other crops Table 4, Table S3e. Small farmers depending on producing their own daily food using saved seeds might be the reason for this negative relationship. The use of fertilizers and weed control improved the general performance of the crop and reduced insect damage. Weed control also resulted in lower weed density and thereby higher security of production. Irrigation resulted in reduced levels of loose smut in the crop Table 5. Cultivation of spring wheat led to a significantly higher incidence of loose smut and common bunt than cultivation of winter wheat, presumably due to cultivar differences and soil conditions. The use of machinery for sowing contributed to a higher incidence of stripe rust and insect damage in the crop, possibly due to higher density of wheat cultivation. Growing wheat for food resulted in a less good general view of Resistance to common bunt, stripe rust, and leaf rust was found to be limited in the wheat material screened Table 6. For common bunt, none of the varieties screened showed full resistance, four varieties showed moderate resistance MR , and the remaining 34 varieties were found to be susceptible S. For stripe rust, five varieties were found to be fully resistant, showing no symptoms of the disease, one variety Vahdat was classified as having MR toward the disease, and the remaining varieties showed high susceptibility. A higher level of resistance to leaf rust than to stripe rust was seen in the screened material, with 16 of the investigated varieties showing no symptoms of this disease. Only two varieties, Lalmikor 1 and Starshina, showed no symptoms of both stripe rust and leaf rust, but both these varieties were highly susceptible to common bunt. View Lodging Weed Wheat variety knowledge 0. However, farmer saved seeds can also spread seed-borne diseases and weed seeds from the previous harvest Husenov et al. Previous studies have shown presence of spores of seed-borne diseases in practically all wheat material in Tajikistan Husenov, One possible reason for that could be, e. Thus, the use of farmer saved seeds because of poverty, lack of resources to buy proper seeds, and lack of locally adapted landraces Schmidt et al. However, without solving the weed issue, the use of modern wheat varieties might not be a better solution, except from such seed being free from weed, than the use of landraces, as modern wheat often is less weed competitive than lanraces Murphy et al. Use of suitable wheat material to achieve high yield of desired quality can be seen as the second most important factor to increase yield, and thereby economic sustainability, in Tajik wheat production. The present survey revealed the negative impact of lack of knowledge of the variety grown on crop production Tables 2, 3, 5 and lack of resistance in the Tajik wheat material Table 6. The use of resistant and weed-competitive wheat material, obtained either from local landraces of traditional varieties Rahmatov et al. However, the currently grown wheat varieties, and also the breeding lines screened in this study, showed limited levels of resistance, with most of the Constraints and perspectives on sustainable wheat production in Tajikistan were identified in this survey. Lack of knowledge in this regard resulted in less good general performance of the crop, increased signs of drought effects, and increased levels of weed and diseases variables 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20 , all factors known to be correlated with decreased yield Waddington et al. Lack of knowledge was also related to low levels of crop rotation, indicating that farmers with little knowledge of the variety they were growing also lacked knowledge about the benefits of increased and secure yield through crop rotation. This lack of crop rotation might also have a negative environmental impact Wienhold et al. Lack of knowledge of the variety grown was most likely a result of farmers using farmer saved seeds, a behavior known to be common among farmers in Tajikistan Husenov, Use of farmer saved seeds may be an indication of use of traditional landraces, but also of lack of income to buy seeds. Traditional landraces are known for their local adaptation and that some of them contribute specific characters e. Appropriate use of farmer saved seeds with a careful Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems www. Sustainable Wheat Production in Tajikistan Bread is the major staple food in Tajikistan, as confirmed by our finding that most wheat was produced for food purposes variable 8 Table 2. Wheat material from the national plant breeding program in Tajikistan has better quality properties than home-grown material Husenov, , although a comparison of current wheat varieties with novel advanced breeding lines found limited signs of improved baking quality Husenov et al. Increased wheat yield is essential if bread continues to be the staple food in the Tajik diet. To achieve this, monoculture of wheat should be avoided, and the economic and social sustainability of wheat production should be raised. To increase wheat yield in Tajikistan, the total amount of weeds in wheat fields needs to be decreased. As mentioned above, farmer saved seeds might be one reason for this high weed density. The other reason might be the almost total absence of weed control variable 10 Table 2. In weed control strategies, the biodiversity of the flora always has to be taken into consideration. A high level of biodiversity is a sign of environmental sustainability of the Tajik agricultural system, despite monoculture of wheat. Moreover, the wheat varieties grown has been found to consist largely of variety mixtures of unknown origin Husenov et al. To maintain biodiversity and environmental sustainability in wheat production, while simultaneously reducing weed density for economic and social sustainability reasons, education of farmers is crucial. Farmers need to be educated on coping strategies for maintaining high biodiversity, combined with weed control strategies to reduce weed pressure in production fields and thus sustainably increase yield in Tajik wheat production. Weed management techniques, such as mechanical control and crop rotation, combined with cultivation of allelopathic varieties able to compete with weeds for growing space, may contribute to higher yield, as may use of certified seed or clean seed. Seed breeding programs need to take into consideration novel varieties with specific resistance genes and combine them with locally adapted varieties with certain qualities and possibly also with variety mixtures, to sustain resistance and quality Husenov, However, such a heavy weed density is known to reduce wheat yield drastically e. Previous studies have found that home-grown wheat seed in Tajikistan contains high levels of seed-borne disease pathogens and has low protein quality, indicating both low level of resistance and low bread-making quality in the majority of the wheat produced in the country Husenov, Having wheat as the pre-crop for wheat variable 2 was taken as an indicator of lack of crop rotation in the present study, but these systems were not found to be less with fields for high biodiversity can be the most beneficial solution, resulting in high crop production and good biodiversity Colbach et al. Lack of crop rotation is another issue hampering sustainability in the Tajik cropping system Wienhold et al. Due to lack of land and high Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems www. Sustainable Wheat Production in Tajikistan for the different variables evaluated in this study might be the result of weather variations or outbreak of diseases etc. As shown in previous studies Sadras et al. Resistance genes to the major diseases were in principle lacking in the Tajik wheat material screened here Table 6. Breeding tolerant varieties that are also competitive to weeds has not even started. Strategies to secure biodiversity and simultaneously increase yield with continuous low chemical input are in place to a limited extent. Thus, our results clearly show that, to increase sustainable wheat production in developing countries, where Tajikistan can be seen as an example, concerted action is urgently needed, with education of farmers and suitable incentives for steering the development of farming systems in a sustainable direction being of critical importance. Instead, a vague correlation between lack of farmer knowledge and lack of crop rotation was found Table 4. However, the high reliance on wheat for food security might be an increasing risk factor under climate change with an increasing frequency of extreme weather events Mukamuhirwa et al. Therefore, a more diversified crop cultivation would be beneficial for increased sustainability and food security in Tajikistan. Drought effects were observed in both irrigated and rainfed fields, and the reason reported by the farmers was lack of water access, especially in early spring. The results showed variations in wheat crop performance between years, agricultural zones, altitudes, and farm sizes Table 4. Previous studies have found larger farms to be more business-driven, with more commercial production and a more positive attitude to use of machinery, inputs such as pesticides, and high-tech solutions, e. In the present study, larger farms were found to use more machinery Tables 2, 4 , but the farmers concerned did not have higher knowledge of e. Variations in crop production with agricultural zone and altitude are well-known from previous studies Clay and Dejaegher, ; Hailu et al. Figure 2 summarizes differences in measured variables by year of study, agricultural zone, altitude, and farm size, applying a PCA. In ZV, farms were in general of medium size and situated at masl Figure 2A , and were characterized by the highest amount of knowledge among farmers, the lowest weed density in fields, and the greatest area of winter wheat, sown using machinery and for seed purposes Figure 2B. The wheat was grown for food, irrigation was used, and lodging was a problem Figure 2B. However, other studies e. The variation over years Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems www. Differences in wheat production also arose from variations in cropping practices between regions zones , altitudes, and farms of different sizes, and from selection of different farms for survey in different years, but these variations were lower than those caused by the three key factors. A combination of greater knowledge among farmers, use of certified seed and resistant varieties, and suitable weed management could contribute to higher yield and increased social and economic sustainability higher yield of the main staple, contributing to less hunger. Increased wheat yield would improve the chances of Tajikistan becoming selfsufficient in wheat, the staple food of the country, reduce hunger among local people, and provide opportunities to grow other crops to support the household with food, which might lead to a change from wheat monoculture to a more diverse system. Sustainable Wheat Production in Tajikistan in e. Sustainable weed management techniques, such as crop rotation, tolerant wheat varieties, and e. Thus, to secure sustainability environmental, economic, and social , the Agriculture Authority of Tajikistan needs to educate farmers in wheat production, make certified seed widely available, and develop suitable weed management systems, while also maintaining high biodiversity. All authors contributed to manuscript improvement, read, and approved the final manuscript. The authors would like to thank all the farmers surveyed for opening up their farms to this investigation and for their time for answering the questions, colleagues in Turkey for helping with screening for major diseases, and Mary McAfee for a thorough language editing of the manuscript. MO participation in the surveillance was supported by the FAO. BH and SA developed the questionnaire. AM assisted in screening of varieties in Turkey. EJ and HM provided overall coordination for the project. BH drafted the manuscript, together with LG-G. The State of Food Insecurity in the World. Rome: FAO. Lerman, D. Sedik, Y. 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Sorghum production systems and constraints, and coping strategies under drought-prone agro-ecologies of Ethiopia. Plant Soil. Genetically modified crops and small-scale farmers: main opportunities and challenges. Scientific Works of Tashkent State University. Bouwmeester, H. Mapping crop diseases using survey data: the case of bacterial wilt in bananas in the East African highlands. Five approaches to social sustainability and an integrated way forward. Sustainability On-farm assessment of constraints to wheat yield in the south-eastern pampas. Field Crops Res. Agro-ecological zones: the development of a regional classification. Tropicultura 5, — Colbach, N. Lansharing vs landsparring: how to reconcile crop production and biodiversity? A simulation study focusing on weed impacts. Functional agrobiodiversity and agrosystem services in sustainable wheat production. Dushanbe: Irfon. Mahmadyorov, U. Scientific justification of growing cereals and legumes as a second crop in irrigated lands of Central Tajikistan In Russian Ph. Dushanbe: Tajik Agrarian University. Moreira-Ascarrunz, S. Mineral nutritional yield and nutrient density of locally adapted wheat genotypes under organic production. Foods Concurrent drought and temperature stress in rice - a possible result of the predicted climate change: effects on yield attributes, eating characteristics, and health promoting compounds. Public Health Country Report. Bonjean and W. Angus Paris: Lavoisier , — Muminov, M. Organizational and economical aspects of increasing efficiency of cereal seed production: based on materials of Tajikistan seed farms In Russian Ph. Murphy, K. Relationship among phenotypic growth traits, yield and weed suppression in spring wheat landraces and modern cultivars. Distribution patterns, ecological characteristic and conservation status of endemic plants of Tadzhikistan—a global hotspot of diversity. Weed vegetation of cereal crops in Tajikistan Pamir Alai Mts. Phytocoenologia 43, — Crop losses to pests. International surveillance of wheat rust pathogens: progress and challenges. Euphytica , — Pett, B. Weeds of Tajikistan and they management In Russian: Sornye rasteniya Tadzhikistana i mery borby s nimi. Dushanbe: MMK. Monitoring of wheat diseases and pests in Tajikistan in Agromeridian Theor. Pretty, J. Reducing food poverty by increasing agricultural sustainability in developing countries. Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins. Results of investigations on wheat breeding in Tajikistan in Russian. News Acad. Republic of Tajikistan Dep. Rahmatov, M. Characterization of stem, stripe and leaf rust resistance in Tajik bread wheat accessions. Euphytica N, Steffenson, B. Sources of stem rust resistance in wheat-alien introgression lines. Plant Dis. Rasmussen, I. The effect of sowing date, stale seedbed, row width and mechanical weed control on weeds and yields of organic winter wheat. Weed Res. On-farm assessment of environmental and management constraints to wheat yield and efficiency in the use of rainfall in the Mallee. Crop Pasture Sci. Tajikistan: the Nature and Natural Resources. Savary, S. Crop losses due to diseases and their implications for global food production losses and food security. Food Sec. Ancient barley landraces adapted to marginal soils demonstrate exceptional tolerance to manganese limitation. Sikharulidze, Z. Monitoring of Cereal rusts in Georgia in — Forum 7, — Smith, P. Climate change and sustainable food production. Agriculture of the Republic of Tajikistan. Statistical Yearbook. Interannual variability of wheat yield in the Argentine pampas during the 20th century. Getting the focus right: production constraints for six major food crops in Asian and African farming systems. Food secur. Wienhold, B. Cropping system effects on soil quality in the Great Plains: synthesis from a regional project. Principal component analysis. A decimal code for the growth stages of cereals. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s and the copyright owner s are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Shamanism and metaphysics Rico Sneller. Expert Panel Presentation VI. Alleviating poverty through aquaculture: How can we improve? Benoy Barman. Adorno's Imageless Materialism Sebastian Truskolaski. Using Excel Hamza Doctor. Thubunaea eleodori sp. Characterization of the lipopolysaccharide from a wbjE mutant of the serogroup O11 Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain, PA Stanislaw Kalembasa. Related topics Geography Production economics.

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Isfara buying weed