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Reference ID. Producer s. Global Youth Tobacco Survey. Created on. Invalid: Type: Discrete. Decimal: 0. Range: 1 - 5. Format: Numeric. Questions and instructions Literal question. Do you sometimes smoke cigarettes at the same time or shortly after using other drugs such as marijuana, cocaine paste or cocaine? Value Category Cases 1 I have never smoked cigarettes Warning: these figures indicate the number of cases found in the data file. They cannot be interpreted as summary statistics of the population of interest. Back to Catalog.

THE COMMISSION OF ENQUIRY ON THE COCA LEAF

Huancayo buy cocaine

Home Electronic sections Varia articles: Innovative use of alkalis in the The alkali processing of maize is essential in preparing corn for human consumption because it releases lysine and tryptophan and, most importantly, niacin. Without these, when the primary dietary staple is unprocessed maize, the result is malnutrition and disease, pellagra. Nixtamalization originated in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica but there was a paucity of corn processing in pre-Hispanic South America, even though corn was ubiquitous in both regions at a very early date. Therefore, the coca chewer also processed plant material, coca, in order to release trace amounts of cocaine along with the vitamins B1, riboflavin and vitamin C. In this paper, I will briefly discuss corn processing in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and compare it with the ancient tradition of coca chewing in South America, emphasizing the ingenious adaptation of these counter intuitive techniques as survival strategies. Without these, when the primary dietary staple is unprocessed maize, the result is malnutrition and disease, pellagra Katz et al. Nixtamalization originated in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica but corn processing was conspicuously absent in pre-Hispanic South America, even though corn was ubiquitous in both regions at a very early date Staller et al. Therefore, the coca chewer also processed plant material, coca, in order to release trace amounts of cocaine along with the vitamins B1, riboflavin and vitamin C Josephson In this paper, I will briefly discuss corn processing in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and compare it with the ancient tradition of coca chewing in South America, emphasizing the ingenious adaptation of counter intuitive processing techniques as survival strategies. I will continue with a brief discussion of coca varieties, then end with an examination of coca chewing in the Western and non-western realms. The concluding remarks section of this paper emphasize the great antiquity of alkali processing in the Americas, point out the lack of maize processing in South America and question the Western criminalization of coca leaves. By this date the Maya had somehow discerned if maize was a dietary staple it required alkali processing. The archaeological evidence for the nixtamalization process first appears on the south coast of Guatemala between and BCE Staller and Carrasco Therefore, alkali cooking of maize was and is a vital component of intensive maize agriculture in Mesoamerica, yet significant traditions of nixtamalization \[of maize\] are lacking in pre-Columbian South America, a region with substantial evidence of extensive maize cultivation Katz et al. The vegetable or fruit component of maize takes the form of chicha beer in South America, at once an ever-present refreshment, offering of tribute, and centerpiece of ritual feasting and exchange Staller el al. What chicha is not is a dietary essential. Indeed, there are many eating patterns and crops that easily fill in the void left when the sustaining nutrition of alkali-processed maize is removed from the development of pre-Columbian civilizations in South America. Research has also pointed to the diversity of nutritional Andean crops potatoes, manioc \[cassava\], quinoa, tarwi etc. Unfortunately, most of the studies related to Erythroxylum, the botanical name for coca, inextricably link the leaf to the modern drug cocaine. An exception to this destructive process occurred when the Spanish gleaned that coca increased colonial labor productivity, causing the crown to take control of coca production Rostworowski Cocaine was first isolated from the leaf by Albert Niemann in Gootenberg Cocaine was initially accepted as a wonder drug but in a few decades the addictive and destructive qualities of the substance became apparent Stolberg Coca acts as a mild stimulant and helps ward off fatigue, hunger and thirst; therefore, it is sought after in this rugged and difficult mountainous environment. Coca is a social lubricant, ceremonial offering and stimulant that was shared by both emperors and peasants in western South America. Plowman identified two species of Erythroxylum , Erythroxylum coca Coca and Erythroxylum novogranatense Novo. He further classified each species of plant into two varieties. Tupa coca , the focus of this investigation, is scientifically classified as Erythroxylum novogranatense var. Tupa is a Quechua word for royal and an appellation of high esteem used in the name of the greatest Inca imperial conqueror Tupa Inca. Novo truxillense is named after the Peruvian North Coast city of Trujillo, or, more specifically, the parched region that typifies this ancient part of northern Peru. But in contrast to the other three varieties, Novo truxillense can sustain the dry conditions of the arid yunga zone of coastal Peru dry mountain foothills. This essence has made the leaf popular with the campesinos that chew the plant on a daily basis, and it is likely that the unique flavoring of this variety promoted the assignment of the appellation tupa for this plant in the pre-Columbian era. Tupa coca has always been cultivated for its taste. Indeed, the process of chewing coca mimics the ancient method of making corn tortillas, tamales and hominy, which were and are the daily bread of the Mesoamerican world. As previously mentioned nixtamalization is a technique in which maize is soaked in a solution of quicklime CaO. Also, Betel chewing in Asia is a similar tradition to chewing coca as both involve the use of slaked lime Rooney The source of calcium carbonate in this decomposition can be myriad: pulverized limestone, chalk, travertine, marble, marl, seashells and coral Wingate Pre-Columbian people extensively used seashells, a very pure form of calcium carbonate as an alkali Engel 68; Shady and this is also widely used in Betel chewing in the Pacific Rooney Besides breaking the corn down and making it physically easier to work into tortillas the quicklime and water mixture releases niacin and vitamins in the corn and reduces incidents of protein deficiency. A coca chewer also processes the coca with the strong lime alkali and in the mouth of the chewer the trace amounts of cocaine are extracted along with the vitamins B1, riboflavin and vitamin C Josephson But any positive reference to the tupa coca plant by this company was rendered impossible by the scandal that erupted at the beginning of the twentieth-century over cocaine in patent medicines and soft drinks. The negative press caused by this additive would haunt the company for decades and scandal has fostered a cultural of denial in reference to any association with the plant Pendergrast A number of problems arise from this explanation. Coca-Cola pre-nineteen hundred likely added both the coca leaf for flavoring Erythroxylum novogranatense var. Sometime after nineteen hundred the cocaine was removed from the blend but coca leaves were still part of the formula, because the unique flavor element of Coca-Cola implies the addition of the savoriest type of coca. Botanist Tim Plowman has pointed out that extracting cocaine from tupa coca is an extremely difficult process, especially compared to the extraction process concerning the other three varieties, so this type of coca has always been poorly suited for cocaine production Plowman Tupa coca is best as a source of flavor. Many Western travelers become acquainted with coca chewing on their quest to experience Machu Picchu. A New Age spirituality often compliments this encounter with the Andean other and the chewing of coca is a ritual activity often associated with this mission. Ash is also used as the alkaline processing agent Katz et al. The availability of wood ash suggests that cinders are the more primitive precursor to the more difficult to manufacture quicklime. But again, Dillehay et al. What is even more striking is that the lime from the site he investigated was produced by precipitating lime from calcite Dillehay et al. The importance of finding an early workshop dedicated to making quicklime cannot be over emphasized. The vendors, of course, know that a ball of llypta should complement any purchase free of charge, but at the Cuzco airport most sellers will feign ignorance if they are challenged for not providing this catalyst at no extra charge. But about two and a half miles away from the airport, a one-pound bag libra of coca leaves can be purchased in the San Pedro market, with complimentary llypta, for approximately the same price as the small glassine packages of ten or twenty leaves at the airport. Small bags of coca leaves are common in other southern Andean regions. Coca chewing session in the village of Chilchos, When an Andean coca aficionado chews coca, the leaves are masticated in the mouth and the chewer can then either bite off a pinch of llypta or add small amounts of CaO from a lime gourd to the pulp lining their inner cheek. The two-inch pin is more precisely a spoon. Imagine a small knife that fits into a bottle shaped sheath. The chewer licks the metal spoon and dips the metal into the gourd to extract lime. Getting the right amount of lime on the end of the spoon requires practice. The llypta or lime releases trace amounts of cocaine in the leaves and puts the drug, and nutrients, into effect. Prowess in chewing is an acquired skill focusing on the right mixture of macerated leaves and lime. The juice from the process should be kept in the mouth as long as possible, before the inevitable spitting. Repeated swallowing of the juice is not recommended because loss of appetite and diarrhea can follow. A quid of coca leaves can pleasantly last for a half of an hour or more depending on the amount of leaves the chewer can add to the mash in the cheeks without triggering the gag mechanism. Ultimately the quid becomes stale and the entire ball of leaves bolo needs to be expelled. The process is then repeated. In Andean communities these chewing sessions, typically beginning around dusk, can last well into the night. Chewing coca can be compared to chewing tobacco. Developing a proficiency in dipping smokeless tobacco is also an acquired skill. The chewer must keep the proper amount of tobacco in their mouth then expel the tobacco and spit at the right time and in the right place. Like chewing coca today, this practice is more suited to a rural environment where freedom of the hands for hard work is often required. Specifically, both chewing tobacco and coca provide a respite for the agricultural worker. The cosmetics of tobacco chewing have kept this custom from gaining popularity in the modern world. In the same way coca chewing also entails practice. Spitting is also required and it is interesting to note that the habit of expectorating is not considered rude in Andean villages. The green mash on the lips and teeth, necessary by-products of the process, also present a repugnant barrier to most Western travelers. Therefore, they typically are not open-minded enough to acquire the skill necessary to become a coquero. Finally, the Western travelers who have been instructed correctly and given coca with the proper alkali are almost always disappointed by the mild effect of the leaves. As the anthropologist Enrique Mayer put it: chewing coca is like going through the Andes on a donkey while using cocaine is like streaking through the region on a jet airplane Pacini and Franquemont Take, for example, this provincial Andean paradigm. In the northern highland capital city of Chachapoyas, I have been told of a group of small business owners, who have worked their way up from their impoverished campesino origins. The current prosperous state of these burghers has forced them to chew coca in secret so that they are not seen as regressing to their previous working-class origins. Elite Moche figures, certainly enjoying tupa coca, are thematic in the ceramics recovered in the northwest desert region of Peru Donnan 35; Mujica and Maio They number about ten thousand individuals and live in and around small villages of this isolated region Reichel-Dolmatoff ; Oyuela Caycedo, The Kogi retain many of their ancient traditions even in this modern era. Priests, called mamas , who have elaborate rituals in connection with the use of coca, rule them. Andean scholars have used ethnographic evidence, gleaned from the Kogi way of life to gain insight into the practices of highland pre-Columbian peoples Burger All of the mamas carry a bag, which contains a lime gourd and stick along with a small bag of coca leaves. The alkali used by the Kogi also references the pre-Columbian era because it is created by burning bivalvular seashells on a carefully constructed pyre. The white powder derived from this process is then sifted into the gourd Reichel-Dolmatoff Interestingly, each mama has two lime gourds: one for daily coca chewing and one set aside for ritual occasions Reichel-Dolmatoff Among the Kogi and most highland Andean societies, the practice of chewing coca is confined to the men. The wooden stick that the Kogi use to extract the lime from the gourd is oversized compared to the many metal pre-Columbian examples in museum collections. Again Reichel-Dolmatoff noted a sexual aspect to the large wooden spoons in that the wood of the spoon must correspond to the paternal line of the owner Reichel-Dolmatoff When the Kogi chew coca, the excess saliva and lime on the spoon are rubbed off on the top of the gourd in a circular motion. Over time the accumulation forms a yellow crust of yellowish white lime. The size and shape of this crust confers status and therefore the owner of an old lime gourd will prominently display the container Reichel-Dolmatoff In addition to uncovering a quicklime manufacturing facility, Dillehay identified the coca leaf in his archaeological find as Novo truxillense Dillehay et al. E arlier archaeological records have confirmed that ancient coastal Peruvians used bottle gourds and mytilus shells to hold their lime, at sites dated 4, BP Engel ; Shady But Dillehay showed evidence of the earliest example of coca chewing at Nanchoc was likely accomplished by using a llypta ball of quicklime mixed with water, ash and salt, rolled into a ball as the alkali. It was then masticated with coca to release the alkaloids, one of which was cocaine Dillehay et al. But in this ancient time bottle gourds were readily available on the North Coast of Peru, as the myriad uses for them would range from simple containers to floaters for fishing nets. But these gourds are dissimilar to those of the Kogi in that they are not fitted with a stick but instead the previously mentioned metal lime spoon is the standard. Some scholars believe coca chewing was restricted to elites in the pre-Columbian world Matienzo ; Julien but John Murra suggested that the ordinary activity of coca chewing drew interest from both peasants and lords in the pre-Hispanic era Pacini and Franquemont Because of the poverty associated with this era it is likely that many of these native workers expeditiously chewed coca with llypta. Today the tradition of using puros to hold the lime, for coca chewing, continues in the northern part of Peru and Colombia but not in the former Inca Imperial core around Cuzco. The artisanal gourd I showed a woman selling coca leaves at the bottom of the salt mines at Maras, just outside of Cuzco, was a source of amazement, but she was completely ignorant as to its use. When I asked for an alkali to accompany the coca I purchased from her, she produced llypta. I had a similar experience buying coca on the streets of La Paz, Bolivia. The woman who sold me the small, but very inexpensive, bag of coca leaves was enthralled by the carved artwork on my puro but she had no idea how to use the gourd, but she did provide free llypta when asked. This gum-like ball has a rather sweet taste again indicative of the previously cited sugar flavor additive. In the southern Andes, some ritualized elements of the pre-Columbian tradition for chewing lime appear then to be lost. Therefore, one would expect the tradition of chewing coca with elite paraphernalia puros to have endured in this historic region, but this is not the case. Perhaps the tradition of associating coca with workers, developing out of the Colonial age, made the practice socially impractical for the mestizo aristocracy? Indeed, puros are not used by coqueros in and around the north central Peruvian city of Huaraz. The region figures prominently in the history of at least two expansionistic Andean states, yet use of puros is unknown. Perhaps this investigation could be tied to a comprehensive survey and investigation into the type of calcium carbonate used in the pre-Columbian manufacture of CaO. For example, quicklime containers gourds and spatulas could be examined for shell and travertine. The Andean field could benefit greatly if more lime processing centers, like the one unearthed by Dillehay et al. Travertine is sourced today for industrial use, so perhaps an oral tradition or Colonial record exists which recorded the sourcing of this material during the pre-Columbian era? I have worked in this region for more than a decade during the course of my research, and during this time I have come to appreciate the importance of coca chewing to the farmers of the Andean world. My discussions about the direction of a particular pre-Columbian trail or the location of an important ruin are always prefaced by a long period of chac bola : coca chewing. Indeed, it was in the remote part of Peru where I first became interested with the topic of coca and the techniques of chewing coca. I previously mentioned the price of a libra of coca leaves as around five dollars US. Buying a bag of coca leaves for several dollars might seem like nothing to a tourist in Cuzco but this price is dear to the cash-strapped campesinos of Peru. The trifling gold and silver of the Mexica and Inca people pales in comparison to the treasure of corn, the potato, the tomato, chocolate, and hot pepper. Enduring foodstuffs were the great gift pre-Columbian peoples sent back to the Old World Coe Coca leaves fall into the celebrated company of these wonderful foods when framed within the Andean world. Coca is not a drug but a foodstuff, intimately entwined with survival in one of the harshest geographical regions in the world for human habitation. Reductionist Western scientists created the profane from the sacred, maligning the ritual of coca chewing in the process, when they began synthesizing cocaine Eliade and Trask In the hamlets and villages of the Andes coca is used today, as it was in the pre-Columbian past, as a tonic for consumption Julien The comparison of chewing coca and maize processing, first presented in this paper, links the Mesoamerican world with the Andean world and is indicative of the indigenous resourcefulness in applying natural science to problems of nutrition and survival. I say counter-intuitive because adding a bitter, and ultimately poisonous, alkali chemical to something that will be chewed, swallowed and absorbed into the body defies common sense. Yet the outcome of this processing is survival. It must be noted that the ancient West also has an example of alkali processing of foodstuffs in the Roman use of wood ash to cure green olives for consumption Palladius The birch-ash treatment of Lutefisk and lye dipped pretzels are more modern examples of Western alkali processing. But clearly, alkali processing of food occurred earlier and was more widespread in the ancient Americas and necessity seems to be the driving force for this adaptation. Nixtamalization provided the nutritional base, which supported the rise of large polities in Mesoamerican. In the Andean world, alkali processing of coca delivered the nutrients and a drug in a region of parched deserts, intimidating mountain altitudes and thick forests. This production site systematically synthesized CaO from precipitated calcite deposits more than eight thousand years ago Dillehay et al. It is curious that marine shells, a limitless source of calcium carbonate easily foraged, were not fired. And the calcite deposits were mined even though the people working the calcite into lime had a source of CaO readily available, simple wood ash. Producing quicklime requires some technological advances and safety measures, whereas wood ash, the alkali used to make llypta, could have been extracted easily from any ancient fireplace. Also, the use of wood ash alkali would likely predate the production of CaO in both Mesoamerica and Peru, however it would be extremely difficult to confirm archaeologically. This hypothesis would suggest that coca and maize processing are likely much more ancient than what Mesoamericanists and Andeanists now believe. However, all of the assumptions presented in here require further investigation. But for purposes of commerce, Convention article 26, completely outlawing coca leaves, was mitigated by article 27, which is as follows:. Also overlooked is the purchase and use of coca flavored tea, chocolate and candies. For the past two years, my coca tea and candies have been confiscated by customs officials when my luggage passed through Mexico City. No explanation was given for the removal and thankfully my equipment was not impounded. Perhaps this appropriation is only the result of the keen drug-dogs? But the previously mentioned UN policy, a flavoring agent with no alkaloids, does nothing to clarify the legality of shipping these products. But consumption of this tea will result in a positive cocaine urine analysis test up to twenty hours after consumption Jenkins et al. Remember, even though the cocaine has no alkali activator when it passes through the tea-drinkers system, the individual still urinates the inactive cocaine alkaloids. Again, taking this into consideration article 27 seems woefully outdated. Using an alkali like CaO is the ancient way of releasing small amounts of cocaine in the mouth of the individual chewer and this ritual consumption has never had any link to the world of narco-trafficking. Finally, the sale, consumption and carrying of coca flavored products should also be clearly removed from any criminal taint. Annals of Botany, Washington D. Chavin and the origins of Andean civilization. New York: Thames and Hudson. American Anthropologist, COE S. Austin: University of Texas Press. The sacred and the profane: the nature of religion. Gootenberg ed. Cocaine: Global histories : New York: Routledge. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Identification and quantitation of alkaloids in coca tea. Forensic Sci Int. Drink, power, and society in the Andes. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. Drug Use: Epidemiological and Sociological Approaches. New York: Halstad Press. An Analytical Dictionary of Nahuatl. KATZ S. Gobierno del Peru Edited by G. MAY G. Madrid: Bibliotheca Americana Vetus. NAIR U. Mutagenesis, 19 4 Cultural survival report Cambridge: Cultural Survival Inc. London: Printed for J. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Botanical Museum Leaflets , Harvard University: 27 : Stone ed. Cambridge, Mass. BBC News. The cultural and chronological context of early Holocene maize and squash domestication in the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico. Leiden: E. RUIZ, H. Madrid: Real Academia de Ciencias. Steward ed. Carrying Coca: 1, Years of Andean Chuspas. New Haven: Yale University Press. The Sioux Chef's Indigenous Kitchen. Pre-Columbian foodways: interdisciplinary approaches to food, culture, and markets in ancient Mesoamerica. New York: Springer. Histories of maize. Multidisciplinary approaches to the prehistory, linguistics, biogeography, domestication, and evolution of maize. Walnut Chreek. California: Left Coast Press. Cocaine: An unauthorized biography. Martins Press. The Ethnobotany of Pre-Columbian Peru. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company. New York: United Nations. Inventing the 19 th century: inventions that shaped the Victorian Age from aspirin to the Zeppelin. Seminario Historia de la Cocina Peruana. Lima: Universidad de San Martin de Porres. Small-scale Lime-burning: A Practical Introduction. London: Intermediate Technology Publications. Sergio Zapata Acha has the tradition of preparing mote, muti, motti, going back to the early conquest era, however the earliest references to this food only refer to cooking it and not the addition of an alkali for processing the corn. This is after three-hundred years of the Columbian Exchange; therefore, it is easy to imagine that a tradition of processing maize had traveled to the Andes from Mexico Zapata Acha Finally, juniper ash is used in native American cooking to create an alkali solution Sherman and Dooley Peter Lerche. Site map — Contacts — Syndication. Privacy Policy — About Cookies — Report a problem. OpenEdition member — Published with Lodel — Administration only. Skip to navigation — Site map. Anthropology of food. Contents - Next document. Varia articles: Robert Charles Bradley. Keywords: pre-Columbian Andes , nixtamal , coca , the Kogi , alkaloid processing. Outline Introduction. Maize processing. Coca varieties and coca processing. Coca chewing and the modern Western World. Coca chewing traditions and the pre-Columbian world. Concluding remarks. Full text PDF Share by e-mail. Maize processing 1 A digression here is necessary for the highland preparation of mote, which today involves adding wo Figure 1. Zoom Original jpeg, k. Figure 2. Figure 3. Notes 1 A digression here is necessary for the highland preparation of mote, which today involves adding wood ash to large boiling kernels of corn. Top of page. List of illustrations Title Figure 1. Browse Index Authors Keywords. 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Huancayo buy cocaine