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Middleast Lankadeepa. Advertise with us. Kusal Mendis' maiden test hundred pulled Sri Lanka out of trouble as they reached for five at tea on the third day of the first test against Australia. The Joint Opposition said today that they would commence their scheduled Pada Yathra from Galaha Junction tomorrow morning while respecting the court order not to conduct the protest march within the Kandy city limits. The former army corporals, who were charged with killing 24 Tamil civilians in Kumarapuram in the Trincomalee District in , were acquitted by the Anurdhapura High Court today. The suspect taken into custody in connection with killing of Sunday Leader Chief Editor Lasantha Wickramathunga has been identified by the man who was driving Mr. Wickramatunga's vehicle at the time he was killed. An Australian, arrested on charges of running naked on Pallekele International Cricket Stadium Turf during the rain delay on the opening day of the first test match between Australia and Sri Lanka, was sentenced to one week's simple imprisonment and a fine of Rs. He is being accompanied by an eight-member delegation. A Russian search and rescue vessel, Igor Belousov arrived today at the Colombo Port upon a goodwill visit. A new boat service will be launched soon near the Colombo Rowing Club and the National Hospital, providing a new mode of transport for people to get to the hospital, Minister of Megapolis Patali Champika Ranawaka said today. A man was arrested with packets of heroin in Athurugiriya Town this morning on information received by the Mirihana Special Crime Investigation unit, police said. Northern Province Chief Minister C. Vigneswaran yesterday claimed rights to the Moragahakanda project as it supplied water to the Northern Province. Tourist arrivals surpass 63, in first half of October. EDB gets new chief. Colombo welcomes Cinnamon Life. Over complaints related to General Election. Call to withdraw FR cases against officers tackling underworld. Issue on privileges given to former Presidents: RW not aware of the facilities requested by his security unit. Global Views. Mon, 21 Oct Log In. Widget weather. Subscribe Login. Latest News. Fallen war heroes remembered 28 Jul Paada Yathra moves to Kadugannawa amid severe traffic congestion 28 Jul Mendis puts Sri Lanka on top 28 Jul Last day of the Exhibition and Book Fair 28 Jul Port City Project- Two more hectares in lieu of losses incurred 28 Jul Pada Yathra to begin from Galaha Junction 27 Jul Six former army corporals acquitted 27 Jul Lasantha's killing: Suspect identified by driver 27 Jul One week in jail for nude Aussie 27 Jul Man arrested with packets of heroin 27 Jul Teachers and Principals take to the streets 27 Jul JO ordered to start its protest march outside Kandy Town 27 Jul Muzammil re-remanded till Aug. Vigneswaran claims rights to Moragahakanda project 27 Jul First Previous Tourist arrivals surpass 63, in first half of October 27 Jul EDB gets new chief 27 Jul Colombo welcomes Cinnamon Life 27 Jul Over complaints related to General Election 27 Jul Call to withdraw FR cases against officers tackling underworld 27 Jul Issue on privileges given to former Presidents: RW not aware of the facilities requested by his security unit 27 Jul Connect With Us. Group Sites. Hitad Timesjobs. All the content on this website is copyright protected and can be reproduced only by giving the due courtesy to 'dailymirror.

Coir from coconut processing waste as a raw material for applications beyond traditional uses

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The global production of coconut, mainly for food and oil production, exceeds 62 million tonnes per annum. Large quantities of coconut husk remain unutilized after industrial processing, giving rise to environmental problems. This fails to exploit the potential presented by the extraction of coir, which could have numerous applications. Traditional products such as textiles, mats, and brushes made from coir are increasingly being joined by new, high-value, non-traditional uses. This review article summarizes new fields of application for coir as reinforcing fibers in binderless fiberboards, natural fiber composites, construction materials, solid biofuels, and an absorbent for heavy metals and toxic materials. The use of coir in these new fields will reduce waste and increase sustainability. The coconut palm Cocos nucifera L. Table 1. It grows along the coast and in the interior regions of almost all tropical countries. Its wide distribution has been favored by its usefulness and adaptability to different ecological conditions. The fruit of the coconut palm, the coconut, is resistant to saltwater, biodegradation, and mechanical forces, allowing it to float in the sea for a long time, covering great distances, and to germinate on the coastal soils when washed ashore Rethinam The coconut has been used by humans for centuries as a source of food, drink, and oil, or for shelter and aesthetic purposes Foale et al. Today, the coconut is grown, or occurs naturally, in 94 out of countries and territories around the world Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations The global production of coconuts and the major producing countries in Asia, the Americas, and Africa are listed in Table 1. Coconuts are primarily grown for the oil-rich copra and oil found inside the coconuts. The copra is surrounded by a shell and a thick husk comprised of coir and pith Thampan , as shown in Fig. While fresh green coconuts are mainly used for nutritional purposes, i. The nuts are further processed into oil and fibers, forming the basis for a wide range of products. Coconuts are harvested at different stages of maturation, depending on the intended use and industrial needs. Fibers from mature coconuts, indicated by a thick, brown, abrasion-resistant husk, are referred to as brown coir. The fibers extracted from immature nuts, also called white coir, have a lower mechanical strength compared to brown coir Meenatchisunderam There are many different mechanical, chemical and enzymatic processes to extract fibers from the coconut husk. The fibers are embedded in a matrix of pectin, polyphenols, and hemicelluloses that have to be degraded to release the fibers. In the first step, the husk absorbs water and the plant tissues swell. At the same time, a wide range of plant extracts and metabolites are washed out in a leaching step Meenatchisunderam In the second step, the nuts are kept in the nutrient-rich leachate, enabling the growth of bacteria and fungi. These excrete enzymes that dissolve the bonds between the fibers, making them easier to separate. Different yeast species play an especially vital role in the degradation of pectic and phenolic substances in the outer shell Nambudiri et al. Additional mechanical pre-treatment such as splitting the husk into smaller pieces can further speed up the process. The fibers can also be treated with hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or UV prior to the mechanical defibrillation. The different treatments and their effects on the fiber strength are reviewed by Varma et al. The retting process is followed by crushing and a mechanical defibrillation step. The husk is comprised of long fibers surrounded by a non-fibrous, lightweight, fluffy material referred to as coir pith. Traditionally, workers beat the retted pulp with wooden mallets to separate the fibers from the pith and the outer skin, but this process has been replaced by motorized processes carried out in steel drums with beater arms that separate the fiber and the pith. The high lignin and cellulose content of coir pith results in a high level of recalcitrance, i. In , about 62 million tonnes of coconuts were produced on a global level Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , creating about 20 million tonnes of husks and thus a theoretical potential of 6 million tonnes of coir. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimated the production of coir in to be at about 1. Almost half , tonnes was produced in India, making the country by far the leading coir producer in the world Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations These figures show that large quantities of coir remain unutilized, since only a fraction of the available husks are processed in coir mills. While some are used for burning or charcoal production, large quantities of husks are unused and dumped as waste instead of being processed into valuable products. As a result, it is common to see large heaps and landfills of coconut husks Fig. The biological degradation of this waste can take several years due to the high recalcitrance of the husks. Waste from the coconut-processing industries gives rise to numerous environmental problems. Waterlogged shells are reported to be breeding sites for mosquitoes, which can lead to epidemics of dengue fever or malaria in nearby communities Dumasari et al. Other effects reported as reducing the life quality of the surrounding population include unpleasant smells and greenhouse gas emissions due to bacterial degradation of the coconut processing waste, a lack of storage space for the landfill sites, the clogging of natural watercourses and the destruction of the natural environment Dumasari et al. Gopal et al. Another problem is that the remaining husks serve as breeding sites for the rhinoceros beetle Orcytes rhinoceros , which is a major pest for coconut production. The beetles visits the landfills for oviposition, and the eggs hatch into grubs and later into beetles that fly to the surrounding palm trees, causing severe damage to oil palms and their nuts. This damage to the nuts leads to secondary fungal infections that cause further damage and economic loss. Nunes et al. Understanding the chemical and physical features of coir is fundamental for developing new uses. This includes the structural, mechanical, chemical and thermal properties of the fibers. Satyanarayana et al. Like any other plant fiber, coir is comprised of cells with different layers in the cell walls and a lumen in the center. The structure of the cell wall consists of several concentric layers that can be divided into an outer primary wall S1 , a central secondary wall S2 , and an inner secondary wall S3. All the layers are fibrillar in nature, with variations in the composition, thickness and orientation of the cellulosic microfibrils. The morphology of the coconut husk and coir has been studied in great detail by van Dam et al. They report that within the husk, coir acts as reinforcing fibers embedded in a matrix of spongy pith. The thin-walled pith cells are attached to the coir surface. The pith cells adhere to the coir, resulting in the formation of a natural composite. The coir itself is characterized by a gradually pitched helical structure with the cell wall composed of microfibrils oriented at an angle of approximately 45 degrees, explaining the high resilience of the fiber. Biswas et al. They measured the tensile strength of brown coir as to MPa, and that of white coir as slightly higher at to MPa. Their data on coir was in accordance with data reported in the literature. The lower strength compared to jute and bamboo fibers was explained by the high degree of porosity. The chemical composition of coir has been widely studied and reported in the literature. Although there are differences depending on the species, location, and degree of maturation of the nuts, coir mainly stands out from other plant fibers due to its high lignin content. The ash content was between 1. The chemical composition of the coir surface was studied by means of infrared spectroscopy. The data indicate the presence of surface waxes from the plant cuticle on the fiber surface Stelte et al. A number of studies have been carried out looking on the thermogravimetric properties of coir. The derived weight loss reveals a superposition of two parallel processes, indicating that the cell wall polymers undergo decomposition at different temperatures. India traditionally focused on the production of value-added products such as yarn, mats, ropes and rugs made from coir. Traditionally, coir was produced for the home market; however, large quantities of the fibers and value-added products are produced for export today. The global annual production of coir, including coir pith, has increased over the last decade at rate of 3. Production reached , tonnes in and is projected to reach 1,, tonnes by Table 2. The International Coconut Community regularly publishes market figures for the key export countries. They report that amid the economic challenges caused by the COVID pandemic, the global market for coir products showed an impressive performance. The main producing countries such as India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia enjoyed an increase in their exports of coir products. Table 2 shows the market development for India from to , indicating that the market for coir products is relatively stable. The uses covered in this article that go beyond traditional applications fall into different fields with a significant volume and potential on the market. These are the production of binderless boards, composite materials, construction materials, environmental remediation materials, and biofuels. Binderless boards are pressed without adding adhesives and are held together only by the natural adhesives present in the biomass fibers Pintiaux et al. At present, most commercial fiberboards or particleboards rely on the use of synthetic adhesives to provide acceptable bonding and moisture resistance in the final board products. The finished boards or panels slowly emit formaldehyde into the surroundings, causing environmental pollution Molhave et al. This may also negatively affect human health, causing irritation or worse effects such as cancer Sheehan et al. In addition, significant production costs are associated with the use of synthetic adhesives as a component in boards or panels. These concerns have motivated the search for more sustainable adhesive-free alternatives for these products. The science behind the bonding in binderless boards in lignocellulosics is complex; a comprehensive review of this has been written by Hubbe et al. They state that lignin, mainly together with cellulose and hemicelluloses, is an integral molecular component that makes up the chemical constitution of plant-based fibers or particles used for commercial boards or panels. Thus, it is already present in the raw materials and has been reported as the main factor responsible for auto-adhesion by wood particles without the addition of synthetic adhesives Avella and Delhoneux Lignin is a complex phenolic polymer that is biosynthesized from three different phenolic precursor units, i. When polymerized, these give rise to H, G and S units, respectively. Several bond types exist between these units, which adds to the high complexity of lignin Vanholme et al. As shown in the review by Hubbe et al. A proper understanding of the auto-adhesion mechanism must account for both of these factors. Other chemical components such as waxes can also be present in the bonding zone. These are found to produce a relatively weak adhesion, presumably due to the fact that weaker Van der Waals interactions dominate, and the formation of stronger inter-particle covalent bonds or hydrogen bonds play a secondary role Stelte et al. Several studies have shown that good adhesion is correlated with pressing conditions that allow a degree of molecular mobility in the surface lignin. This enables the establishment of good surface-to-surface inter-particle contact and bonding. This takes place when the temperature is sufficiently high relative to the lignin T g. Due to the chemical nature of lignin, the glass transition temperature, T g , is not narrow; it is best described as a broad temperature region that depends on the lignin structure. Thus, syringyl lignin lignin rich in -OMe substitution tends to be a polymer with a more linear backbone, whereas guaiacyl lignin lignin with an intermediate level of -OMe substitution permits branching of the backbone, and a larger number of accessible linkage types within the lignin polymer. Differences of this kind in the lignin structure, that distinguish different types of fibers from one another, give rise to different T g and flow behaviors. The other factor mentioned above, B , comes into play when sufficient inter-particle contact can be established due to the lignin polymer having a larger-scale flow or greater mobility. This may lead to the interlocking of polymer segments, which contributes to the overall adhesion. On the molecular level, this may be caused by Van der Waals or charge-transfer interactions between aromatic rings. Much stronger interactions may arise from covalent bond formation between lignin segments within the bonding zone. At low temperature conditions, lignin has previously been shown to stabilize free radicals in the form of very stable lignin phenoxyl radicals that are immobilized within the lignin matrix Barsberg and Thygesen ; Barsberg ; Barsberg et al. When surface lignin is subjected to conditions that promote the production of free radicals, i. The presence of atmospheric oxygen can enhance this process by causing the formation of lignin peroxy-radicals that can abstract hydrogen atoms from lignin and lead to a chain reaction by radicals. Covalent bond formation can end a chain reaction of this type. From the chemistry of phenolic antioxidants, it is well known that electron-donating groups in a coarse description of their effect enhance the antioxidant activity and radical-stabilizing ability of a phenolic structure. The overall auto-adhesion is caused by a combination of many different complex mechanisms. Apart from lignin, other cell wall components may also contribute, such as hemicelluloses. These are flexible polysaccharides with relatively low T g , and they possess many hydrogen-bond-forming hydroxyl groups that may be spatially organized to enhance the adhesion. Cellulose occurs in crystalline strands microfibrils whose surfaces are rich in hydroxyl groups. However, these are ordered surfaces with little flexibility to optimize hydrogen bonding that is not internal to the crystalline structure. One important difference compared to lignin-dominated adhesion is that polysaccharide hydrogen bonding is moisture-sensitive. Thus, given the right conditions, an increase in the amount of lignin on the surface of fibers or particles is expected to make the auto-adhesion of the resulting boards relatively moisture-resistant. The production of high-density fiberboards from coir has been studied in great detail by van Dam et al. They studied the composition and thermomechanical properties of coir and concluded that it is an excellent raw material for the production of high-density fiberboards. The lignin content of the fibers was shown to be about They speculated that the irreversible changes are due to condensation reactions, i. Furthermore, they pointed out that pre-treatment processes for the isolation of coir, i. The fibers and chemical composition vary slightly depending on the variety and degree of maturation. Van Dam et al. They concluded that the varietal differences between the fibers were minor and did not affect the fiberboard production process. However, the effect of maturing on the chemical composition of the husks was more pronounced, with an increase in the glucose content. A study by Stelte et al. A simple, efficient process was developed to produce high-strength, high-density fiberboards. All three fiber-opening processes were deemed suitable for pre-treatment, and the mechanical properties of the boards and molded products were evaluated and compared to commercial MDF and particleboard. The binderless coir boards and molded products exhibited an excellent performance, suggesting that coir is an excellent raw material for fiberboards and molded parts. Cocopallet, a company from the Netherlands, recently developed a shipping pallet made from binderless coir Fig. Binderless coir pallet. Coir is an excellent filler for the production of composite materials. It can reinforce both synthetic and natural polymer matrices. Coir has predominantly been combined with polypropylene, as well as polyethylene, epoxy, and poly lactic acid , and made into composites. The amount of fiber used as reinforcement, the addition of coupling agents, hybridization with other fibers and physical and chemical treatments have all been adjusted to obtain coir-based composites with the desired properties. Some of the properties of coir-reinforced synthetic polymer-based composites have been reviewed recently Adeniyi et al. These coir-based composites have been suggested as a useful means of developing tails, wings, and propellers for aeronautics, boat hulls, storage tanks, various sporting goods applications and packaging materials Adeniyi et al. Being inherently hydrophilic, coir will have limited compatibility with hydrophobic matrices. Hence, several approaches have been used, such as the alkalization of the fibers to remove hydrophilic substances and improve the fiber surface, or the use of compatibilizers and emulsions. The properties of coir-reinforced composites also depend on the type of processing used. Open molding, extrusion, injection molding, resin transfer molding, and compression molding have all been used to develop coir-based composites. While access to the facilities required to prepare the composites determines the methods used for research-based studies, economical factors should be considered when coir-based composites are processed on a larger scale. Similarly, the size of composites also influences the choice of the method used for processing. Resin transfer molding RTM and compression molding are more commonly used, and RTM is preferable when larger composites need to be fabricated Adeniyi et al. Increasing the coir content also increased the tensile strength and water resistance due to the increase in the lignin content. It was suggested that the composites formed met the specifications required for non-structural components such as automobile door panels Ayrilmis et al. Through twin screw extrusion and injection molding, coir has been combined with other natural and synthetic fibers to develop hybrid composites with polypropylene PP as the matrix. The tensile and flexural strength decreased as the amount of coir increased — but the moisture sorption increased. Natural fibers, coir and banana fibers have distinct properties, particularly in terms of fineness and lignin content. Care should be taken to blend the fibers uniformly in order to obtain consistent properties and utilize the advantages of each fiber Bujjibabu et al. Various modifications have been made to improve the interaction between the coir and the synthetic matrices. Treating coir with alkali, stearic acid, or potassium permanganate provided increased mechanical properties and electrical performance. A decrease in the dielectric constant and an increase in the flexural modulus and strength were noticed due to improved adhesion and enhanced polar interactions Lai et al. These were later injection-molded into composites of the desired shape and size. Composites containing the treated fibers had a higher tensile strength compared to neat PP. The flexural strength, flexural modulus, and hardness of chemically treated coir-reinforced PP composites were higher compared to the untreated composites. A considerable decrease in the hydrophilicity, an increase in interfacial bonding and better filler matrix interactions had occurred, leading to improved properties Islam et al. However, the extent of treatment of the coir should also be limited, since excessive treatment is detrimental to the properties of the fibers and hence the composites. Composites were developed through a solution-casting process, and the amount of fibers, compression pressure, time and temperature were varied. Flexural strength ranged from 0. The tangled mass of fibers with a random orientation provided better properties than the pressed fiber mats Monteiro et al. Polyester is highly hydrophilic, resulting in poor fiber matrix dispersion, the wetting of fibers, and consequently lower composite properties. Acetylation of coir or using silanes or titanates was believed to improve the compatibility between the coir and polyester. The chemical modifications improved the interfacial shear strength between the fibers and the matrix and led to an increase in the tensile strength and modulus due to the change in the fiber properties, particularly the increased hydrophobicity on the surface. Acetylation was found to enhance properties better compared to silane or titanate coupling Hill and Khalil Coir was treated with alkali or bleached to remove lignin and later grafted with acrylonitrile to improve compatibility with polyester and composite properties. Treated coir was made into non-woven mats and used to reinforce polyester composites developed using the resin transfer molding approach. Bleaching and alkali treatment also decreased the moisture sorption of the fibers but did not provide composites with properties similar to that of glass-fiber -reinforced polyester due to the relatively weak properties of coir compared to glass fibers Rout et al. The treated fibers were made into composites using hand lay-up and the resin transfer molding approach. Alkali treatment caused substantial changes to the surface morphology and the mechanical properties of the fibers. Substances such as lignin, wax and oils were removed and the surface became irregular and rougher, which enhances the fiber matrix adhesion. Treatment with alkali also causes the ionization of hydroxyl groups, which also makes the fibers more compatible with the epoxy matrices. Due to such changes, a In another study, it was proposed that fiber lengths affect the properties of epoxy composites, but poor interfacial adhesion affects the tensile and flexural strength and modulus Biswas et al. Changes in fiber length also caused variations in the void content, the amount of moisture sorption, and the density of the composites, which also affected other properties. An optimum fiber content was necessary to obtain composites with an increased tensile strength and modulus without affecting other properties Das and Biswas Treating coir with sodium carbonate also removed external components, exposed crystalline cellulosic fibers and increased the internal structure and swelling. This improved the tensile and flexural modulus when used as a reinforcement for epoxy or polyester. However, the properties of the coir-reinforced epoxy were lower than those of neat polyester or epoxy due to the limitations in the orientation of the fibers in the composites dos Santos et al. Composites were fabricated using the hand lay-up and resin transfer molding techniques. Alkali treatment substantially increased the interfacial adhesion, reduced the porosity, and improved the tensile and flexural properties. The addition of cement particles did not produce any major improvement in the properties, and it was suggested that it was not possible to obtain enhanced mechanical and physical properties simultaneously Oliveira et al. Composites with a higher fiber content had an increased moisture sorption but good matrix-fiber adhesion Das and Biswas Blending coir with glass fibers and developing epoxy-based hybrid composites also showed similar results, with a maximum flexural strength of 63 MPa and a hardness value of Coir- and jute-fiber-reinforced hybrid epoxy Novolac composites have also been developed using hand lay-up techniques. Fibers cut to 1 cm in length were made into mats and laid in different configurations with a ratio of coir to jute. Hybridization was found to improve the dimensional stability and mechanical properties of the composites and jute provided higher moisture resistance compared to coir Saw et al. Coir-jute composites were also found to have better properties than pure coir-epoxy composites Singh et al. Composites using coir have been developed using synthetic polymers such as polyester, polypropylene, or epoxy as resins. Since these composites contain synthetic polymers, they can only be considered to be partially degradable. Efforts have been made to develop completely biodegradable coir composites using natural and synthetic biodegradable resins matrices such as poly lactic acid. Starch is one of the most widely used and inexpensive biopolymers but is non-thermoplastic. Chemical modifications have been made to starch to make it thermoplastic, utilize the modified starch as a matrix, and develop completely biodegradable composites. Instead of using synthetic biopolymers, completely biodegradable coir-based composites have been developed using proteins notably wheat gluten as a binder with and without chemical modifications. Coir fibers were treated with sodium hydroxide or 3-triethoxysilylpropyl -t-butylcarbamate carbamate silane to improve the interfacial interaction and mechanical properties. It was suggested that the composites obtained could be suitable for applications such as furniture, construction boards and packaging Diao et al. Coir fibers can be used as reinforcement in traditional building materials such as concrete and gypsum, providing the building material with additional stability. In one study, 0. The compressive strength of the cement blocks increased substantially and the residual strength, toughness, and ductility also increased up to a fiber content of 0. However, resistance to acid and alkali decreased due to the addition of coir Sathiparan et al. Additives such as dispersing agents, defoamers, and wetting agents were included to improve the properties of coir-reinforced concrete. In addition, chemical and physical modifications were made to both the matrix and fibers. Coir fibers with a length of 2 and 4 cm were treated with alkali and used as additives for concrete along with the dispersant, defoamer and wetting agent in various proportions and cast into composites. Alkali-treated fibers exhibited better interaction and composite properties Li et al. The addition of 0. In addition to cement, coir has been used as a reinforcement for gypsum to improve its resistance to environmental degradation and its mechanical properties. Coir fibers 0. An enhanced post-peak region was observed. The product was suggested to be suitable for building temporary roads Dutta and Mohanty Coir fibers were combined with feathers and used to reinforce gypsum and potentially replace false ceiling tiles used in interior applications Guna et al. Good resistance to moisture and high flame resistance similar to that of commercial gypsum boards was obtained. The product was said to be useful for promoting green building initiatives. Coir fibers were combined with PVOH and made into samples to determine their acoustic properties. The noise reduction coefficient of the composites depended on the thickness of the samples and the number of air gaps. Experimental data obtained in an impedance tube closely followed various models used to predict the acoustic sorption of natural fiber materials Table 4 Taban et al. The acoustic properties of coir are also related to the age of the fibers and the frequency of testing. Fresh coir had an average absorption coefficient of 0. Increasing the thickness increased the sound absorption, particularly at lower frequencies. Including perforated plates and increasing the number of air gaps was also found to improve acoustical properties Fouladi et al. The sound absorption panels were lightweight and biodegradable, and found to be suitable to replace glass fiber and mineral fiber-based acoustic panels. Based on the ISO standard, an absorption coefficient between 0. In another study, various models were used to predict the acoustic performance of coir-reinforced composites. The results obtained from the modeling studies were comparable to the experimental data. Coir composites had an acoustic absorption of 0. A substantial increase in the acoustic absorption of coir was also reported when the coir fibers were compressed. By contrast, increasing the number of air gaps between the fiber layers was reported to improve the sound absorption at low frequencies. A suitable arrangement of air gaps and fiber layers and the addition of a perforated plate were suggested to improve the acoustic absorption of coir-based composites Fouladi et al. The sound absorption properties varied considerably with the density and thickness of the samples. A sound absorption coefficient between 0. In terms of sound transmission loss, samples that were 35 mm thick had a loss of Table 4. After carbonization and other physical and chemical modifications, coir has been used in fibrous form for environmental remediation. Acid treatment increased the pore size and porosity, facilitating higher sorption. Waste cooking oil is an ideal feedstock for the production of biodiesel, but contains high amounts of free fatty acid FFA which hinder conversion. The possibility of using activated carbon from coir for the sorption of FFA was studied in a fixed-bed adsorption column. Studies have shown that coir can sorb considerable amounts of dyes. However, the role that the various components of coir play in the sorption of dyes was not clear. In a recent study, it has been shown that removing lignin decreased the sorption of acid and reactive dyes but increased the sorption of basic dyes. The amount of lignin affected the removal of acid dyes due to the reduction in the carboxyl content. Hence, appropriate pre-treatments are required before coir fibers are used for specific dye removal Samanta et al. In addition, several modifications have been made to increase the efficiency of coir when sorbing various dyes Table 5. Treating coir fibers with the cationic surfactant hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide instead of acid was helpful in considerably increasing the sorption of acidic dye direct red 12B : Table 5. The purified coir was used to sorb dyes from wastewater using a down-flow hanging sponge reactor. Similar to the approach used with the dyes, various modifications Table 5 have been made to improve the sorption of metal ions from polluted water using coir pith. Sorption capacities between 8. Selective chemical modification such as treatment with nitric acid thiolation provided coir fibers with a specific surface area and charge density of 1. Not only common metals, but even rare metals such as gallium have been successfully recovered Oxidation increases the surface area and facilitates higher sorption through ion exchange High desorption was also possible after treatment with 0. The sorption of metals by coir also depends strongly on the initial dosage, the metal concentration and the pH. The sorbed metals were easily desorbed and the coir fibers recycled up to 3 times without any major loss in the adsorption capacity Shukla and Shukla Coir has been activated using various chemicals and subsequent carbonization to improve its porosity and pore size and hence its ability to remove various sorbents. This carbon provided high sorption for methylene blue and Remazol yellow though pseudo-second-order kinetics and intraparticle diffusion. Coir from coconut processing waste as a raw material for applications beyond traditional uses.

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