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Background: According to the literature, the conditions of studying and living as well as the psychological, social and health behavior-related variables, which were strongly related to pharmacological neuroenhancement PN before the pandemic, significantly changed during the pandemic. For this reason, it is expected that the prevalence of PN among university students is higher during the pandemic compared to before the pandemic. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate and compare the prevalence of PN among university students before and during the COVIDpandemic. Methods: Three online surveys assessing the month prevalence of PN were conducted among university students at the University of Mainz, Germany. The first survey took place in summer term before the pandemic , the second in summer term during the first German lockdown , and the third in summer term after the second German lockdown. Pearson's chi-square test was used to test whether the month prevalence of PN differed significantly between the three surveys. Results: The month prevalence of PN was Chi-square tests revealed no statistical difference in the prevalence of PN between and Only the use of cannabis slightly increased from to 7. At all three time points, cannabis was the most commonly used substance for the purpose of PN. Consequently, the results suggest that the prevalence of PN was highly intertwined with the prevalence of cannabis use for PN. Discussion: The decrease in the prevalence of PN of around three percentage points in compared to the previous years was a surprising finding. It may be mainly due to the decrease in the prevalence of cannabis for the purpose of PN. Pharmacological neuroenhancement PN is generally defined as the use of illicit or prescription drugs by healthy individuals for cognitive-enhancing purposes such as enhancing alertness, attention, concentration, memory, and mood 1 , 2. Daubner et al. In western Europe and the United States, epidemiological studies showed that PN is prevalent specific occupational settings such as surgeons and economics 4 — 6 and in the general population 7 — 9. Furthermore, a considerable number of studies demonstrated the use of PN in the collective of university students. For example, as lifetime prevalence for PN, 7. Using an indirect survey technique, Dietz et al. These estimates varied between the different study disciplines. Moreover, within a comprehensive review and meta-analysis, Benson et al. From a public health point of view, the use of PN is seen critically because it appears to be associated with physiological and psychological side effects and increased mortality, can lead to addiction, and may provide a gateway for the use of other substances 16 — Therefore, the need for prevention of PN has been underlined by several experts 3. In this context, university students were pointed out as a population of specific relevance, since university students are tomorrow's leaders, decision-makers, and parents. Consequently, health promotion and prevention in this collective would be sustainable and beneficial for the general society 22 , Aiming to develop and implement prevention strategies of PN among university students more specifically, Heller et al. They concluded that specific health behavior variables such as physical activity or nutrition had the most decisive influence on the explained variance of PN, supporting the results of previous studies 13 , In addition, other studies identified psychological factors such as stress 26 — 28 and study-related psychosocial factors such as perceived academic benefits 29 — 32 being related to PN. In response to the pandemic, universities in Germany were closed in March aiming to positively influence the course of infection. The abrupt loss of personal contacts with peers and faculty, postponement of curricula, research, practical work, and exchange programs, profound changes regarding their financial and housing situation as well as the abrupt switch to online learning 34 — 36 happened with far-reaching consequences, not only for the education of students but also for their mental health, health behavior and social behavior. For example, using a longitudinal design, Werner et al. Furthermore, a wide range of explanatory variables of PN were examined before the pandemic, ranging from psychological, social, study-related, and health behavioral variables. However, with regard to the prevalence of PN among university students during the pandemic, we are not aware of any internationally published article addressing this issue. Since the conditions of studying and living as well as the psychological, social, and health behavior-related variables, which were strongly related to PN before the pandemic, significantly changed during the pandemic, it is expected that the prevalence of PN among university students is higher during the pandemic compared to before the pandemic. Therefore, the present study aimed to address this knowledge gap by investigating and comparing the prevalence of PN among university students before and during the COVIDpandemic. Three online surveys were conducted among university students at the University of Mainz, Germany, as part of the interdisciplinary research project Healthy Campus Mainz. The first survey took place in summer term between June and August before the pandemic , the second in summer term in June during the first German lockdown , and the third in summer term between June and August after the second German lockdown. All three surveys followed the same procedure. Students were invited to participate via e-mail addressed to all registered students using the central student mailing list of the university. The questionnaire of the first pre-pandemic survey covered questions regarding sociodemographic data, health status, health behavior, and a wide range of potential determinants of health status and health behavior. More specific information concerning the survey procedure and the content of the first survey can be found elsewhere The second and third pandemic survey contained additional specific questions with regard to the COVIDpandemic. Participation was voluntary and informed consent was obtained before participation. Study approval was obtained by the ethical committee of the Medical Association of Rhineland-Palatinate No. PN was investigated in all surveys as part of the health behavior questions following the same methodical approach published for example, by Heller et al. Descriptive variables of the three surveys are presented as means with standard deviations SD for continuous variables and as absolute and relative frequencies numbers and percentages for categorical variables. The samples of the three surveys were largely comparable with regard to gender, age, and study-related characteristics Table 1. The month prevalence of PN was Taking a closer look at the specific substances used for the purpose of PN Table 3 , it can be seen that the month-prevalence rates of all substances were relatively constant at the three time points. Table 3. In the present study, we investigated whether the month prevalence of PN among university students was higher during the COVIDpandemic compared to the prevalence before the pandemic. Therefore, three waves of survey in the summer terms of the respective years were conducted, one before the pandemic , one during the first German lockdown , and one after the second German lockdown , when the infection case rates were continuously decreasing in Germany and lockdown measures were loosened. The sample sizes of the three surveys decreased from to and from to As we used the same methodological approach for recruiting university studens in all three surveys by contacting all students of the University of Mainz per E-Mail via a central mailing list 41 , we do not think that the decrease in sample size had methodological reasons. Consequently, we hypothesize that the university students lost their motivation to participate in one more voluntary online survey during the pandemic what may be a reason for the decrease in sample size. Contrary to our expectation, the prevalence of PN was relatively constant in and but decreased significantly in At all three time points, cannabis was the most commonly used substance for the purpose of PN, which made up around two-thirds to three-fourths of the total prevalence of PN at all measurement points. The relatively constant or slightly increasing numbers from and are in line with the recently published drug survey of the federal government, indicating that the prevalence of the use of cannabis among young adults is continuously increasing since the last years Furthermore, as stated in the world drug report of the United Nations, cannabis use patterns had remained relatively stable during the first lockdown period in the European Union, with nearly half of the participants reporting no change in their cannabis use, compared with the pre-lockdown period. In addition, as described in the second booklet on the global overview of drug demand and drug supply of the world drug report , supply chains for Cannabis and also for other psychoactive substances were not affected by the pandemic. In the fifth booklet of this report on the impact of COVID on drugs, it is further stated that COVID may have accelerated the pre-existing trends toward increased use and availability of cannabis in some high-income countries as some people have turned to the drug to alleviate stress or manage boredom brought on by stay-at-home orders However, these reports refer to the prevalence for the use of cannabis per se and not for the specific purpose of PN, as we did in our study. Therefore, the comparability of numbers has to be seen with caution. The decrease in the prevalence of PN of around three percentage points in compared to the previous years was a surprising finding. It may be mainly due to the decrease in the prevalence of cannabis for the purpose of PN, which was also around three percentage points. In contrast, the prevalence for the other surveyed substances for PN remained the same. However, as literature regarding the prevalence of PN during the COVIDpandemic is rare, any discussion of this finding will be mostly hypothetical. One reasoning could be that potential demands e. In contrast to this reasoning, a study among college students performed at seven colleges in the United States showed that depressive symptoms and anger were modestly higher post-college closure compared to pre-college closure period, whereas no differences were observed in anxiety symptoms or insomnia and variables of cannabis use. However, the data were subject to both self-report and self-selection bias One theoretical approach to explain the decrease of the prevalence of PN in could be Kahnemanns's Prospect Theory According to this approach, the slightly higher prevalence of PN at the beginning of the pandemic could be explained by the situation and circumstances that students were confronted with, which were characterized by many uncertainties such as loss of personal contacts with peers and faculty, research, practical work, and exchange programs, profound changes regarding their financial and housing situation as well as the abrupt switch to online learning. These may have increased tendencies toward risk behaviors like PN. In contrast, the decreased prevalence of PN in reflects that the experiences after 1 year of studying under the conditions of the pandemic may have given a certain kind of security to the students that studies can be handled and even solutions like online-exams may cause less stress and therefore less risk behviors like PN. For a more in-depth interpretation of the present results, especially the decrease in the prevalence of PN in compared to the previous years, more studies are needed addressing the prevalence of PN among university students and potential explanatory variables of PN during the COVIDpandemic. To be able to plan evidence-based and effective PN-prevention initiatives for university students, it is important to understand the conditions and factors predicting PN among this target group. In this context, using a stepwise binary logistic regression model, Heller et al. This is in line with other research indicating that strengthening health-related key skills and ressources in the sense of positive coping strategies leads to a decrease in the prevalence of PN. For example, Bagusat et al. Consequently, we recommend that initiatives aiming to prevent PN among university students have to be multifactorial taking the specific conditons of studying into account and have to focus on strengthening competences with regard to health behavior, mental health literacy and non-pharmacological ressources and strategies 24 , 46 , Especially during the COVIDpandemic and in times of distance-teaching, online programs are of particular relevance. To name just some concrete examples of evidence-based online intitiatives for university students, at the university of Mainz, Germany, KEN-Online , and STUDYCoach are programs where students learn to deal with, for example, their emotions, stress, or symptoms of depression or anxiety. Another approach which aims to transport the topics physical activity, sedentary behavior and digital detox into online lectures is the program called Health Express. Here, long lectures are interrupted by short video clips which address a specific health-related topic and which were specifically developed for the target group university students under participation of university students. Moving from sitting into standing position is obligatory at the beginning of all video clips As potential limitation, it has to be mentioned that no causal inference can be drawn from cross-sectional data, as performed in the present study. The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation. The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Medical Association of Rhineland-Palatinate No. PD had the lead in manuscript writing. All authors have read and approved the final draft of the manuscript and contributed in conceptualization and study design. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. The authors would like to thank all university students who participated in the studies. Franke AG, Lieb K. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz. Associations between physical and cognitive doping - a cross-sectional study in 2. PLoS One. 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To dope or not to dope: neuroenhancement with prescription drugs and drugs of abuse among Swiss university students. Prevalence and correlates of stimulant and depressant pharmacological cognitive enhancement among Norwegian students. Nordisk Alkohol Nark. J Further Higher Educ. Prevalence estimates for pharmacological neuroenhancement in Austrian university students: its relation to health-related risk attitude and the framing effect of caffeine tablets. Front Pharmacol. Randomized response estimates for the month prevalence of cognitive-enhancing drug use in university students. Misuse of stimulant medication among college students: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. Adolescents' prescription stimulant use and adult functional outcomes: a national prospective study. Neuropsychological functioning in college students who misuse prescription stimulants. Am J Addict. 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Sattler S, Schunck R. Associations between the big five personality traits and the non-medical use of prescription drugs for cognitive enhancement. Predictors of prescription stimulant misuse in U. College Graduates. J Am Coll Health. Neuroenhancing substances use, exam anxiety and academic performance in Bosnian-Herzegovinian first-year university students. Acta Med Acad. Building conceptions of cognitive enhancement: university students' views on the effects of pharmacological cognitive enhancers. Perception and attitudes of medical students on clinical clerkship in the era of the Coronavirus Disease pandemic. Med Educ Online. Online teaching in radiology as a pilot model for modernizing medical education: results of an international study in cooperation with the ESR. Insights Imaging. Arbeitsmedizin Sozialmedizin Umweltmedizin. The impact of lockdown stress and loneliness during the COVID pandemic on mental health among university students in Germany. J Med Internet Res. J Affect Disord. Z Gesundh Wiss. Challenge accepted! Die Drogenbeauftragte der Bundesregierung. Jahresbericht United Nations Office on Drug Crime. World Drug Report. Alcohol use, cannabis use, and psychopathology symptoms among college students before and after COVID J Psychiatr Res. Kahneman D, Tversky A. Prospect theory: an analysis of decision under risk. Handbook of the Fundamentals of Financial Decision Making. Singapore: World Scientific Is mental health literacy for depression associated with the intention toward preventive actions? A cross-sectional study among university students. Non-pharmacological cognitive enhancement. Healthy Campus Mainz. Gesund studieren. Public Health The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s and the copyright owner s are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Top bar navigation. About us About us. Sections Sections. About journal About journal. Article types Author guidelines Editor guidelines Publishing fees Submission checklist Contact editorial office. Public Health , 24 March Public Health Education and Promotion. Werner 2 Jennifer L. Introduction Pharmacological neuroenhancement PN is generally defined as the use of illicit or prescription drugs by healthy individuals for cognitive-enhancing purposes such as enhancing alertness, attention, concentration, memory, and mood 1 , 2. Methods Three online surveys were conducted among university students at the University of Mainz, Germany, as part of the interdisciplinary research project Healthy Campus Mainz. Table 1. Sample characteristics of the three surveys. Table 2. Twelve-month prevalence of PN in the three surveys.

How can I buy cocaine online in Lech am Arlberg

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How can I buy cocaine online in Lech am Arlberg