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The rate of dependence among ever-users of a drug indicates the risk of developing dependence once an individual has been exposed to the drug. This is the first study to investigate month tobacco dependence TD among ever-smokers in a community-based population. The rates of month TD among ever-smokers in men showed no significant difference between On the contrary, the rates in women significantly increased from After adjusting for the sociodemographic variables, 'male gender' was significantly associated with month TD among ever-smokers in , but not in Individuals with month TD showed higher comorbidity with alcohol dependence than ever-smokers without TD. Approximately , deaths are attributed annually to cigarette smoking, which represent one-fifth of all deaths, and lung cancer and ischemic heart disease have been reported to be responsible for approximately half of smoking-attributable deaths in the U. In Korea, smoking cessation has also become an important social issue because lung cancer has been reported to be the most rapidly increasing cause of death 2. However, the smoking rate of Korean men remained higher as Tobacco dependence TD is an important barrier to smoking cessation because it creates the feeling an urgent need to smoke to avoid the withdrawal symptoms associated with dependence 4. Smokers with TD try to stop smoking more often than nondependent smokers but remain more likely to do more trials to quit smoking 4. However, the proportion of smokers who has TD remains controversial. However, no previous study has been conducted to determine current or month dependence among ever-smokers, as mentioned by Hughes et al. Thus, it would be informative to determine whether rates of TD among ever-smokers vary or are stationary. This could be achieved by performing longitudinal comparisons of the rates of current TD among ever-smokers, and the prevalence of ever-smokers and current TD. If rates of current TD among ever-smokers are changeable, attempts should be made to identify the factors that reduce the rate of dependence. Alternatively, if rates are stationary, plans should be directed toward preventing initial exposure. The purpose of this study was to examine whether changes in the rates of month TD have occurred among ever-smokers, and to investigate the prevalence, correlates, and psychiatric comorbidity. Procedure and participants. The data were derived from the national study by Lee et al. Lee et al. The subjects enrolled in both studies were selected using a stratified, multi-stage, cluster sample design, which was based on the population census of the community registry offices in and in All family members from selected households were included in , whereas only one person per household, chosen at random, i. From an initially selected 6, persons in and 7, households in , a total of 5, face-to-face interviews response rate On the other hand, the study was conducted using CIDI 2. Respondents who satisfied all criteria of TD were diagnosed as having TD The criteria of TD included; continuous use of tobacco for at least one month criterion A , and at least one of the followings: an unsuccessful serious attempt to stop or significantly reduce the amount of tobacco use on a permanent basis; attempts to stop smoking had led to the development of tobacco withdrawal; the continued use pf tobacco despite a serious physical disorder e. The DSM-IV diagnostic criteria included not only three criteria of TD but also tolerance, larger amount and longer duration of consumption, and reduced activities. Therefore, three criteria were used for diagnosing TD from the data of survey. The month TD was defined as the respondents experienced any symptom of dependence within 12 month prior to interview. The ever-smokers defined as the respondents have smoked daily for more than one month during their lifetime. The never-smokers were defined as the respondents who had no experience of smoking or who were insufficient to fulfill the criteria of ever-smokers. Statistical analysis. Weighted values were calculated for respondents and used to adjust data, in order to approximate the national population in terms of age and gender in each catchment area, as defined by the Korean National Statistical Office's census. All statistical analyses were based on respondent weighted data. We compared the prevalence of ever-smokers, month TD, and month TD among ever-smokers between the and the by genders with multivariate logistic regression analyses, adjusting for age, marital status, and residence. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were also conducted on selected variables including gender, age, and marital status. We then investigated comorbidity associated with TD with other psychiatric disorders, namely, alcohol dependence, alcohol abuse, major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, and somatoform disorders. Longitudinal comparisons of the prevalence of month TD among ever-smokers. Sociodemographic data for the subjects were listed in Table 1 , 2 presents the prevalence of ever-smokers, month TD, and month TD among ever-smokers. For men, the prevalence of ever-smokers significantly increased from For women, the prevalence of ever-smokers showed no significant changes from 5. Table 1 Description of samples weighted. Table 2 Prevalence and adjusted odds ratios of to for ever-smokers, month tobacco dependence a TD , and month TD among ever-smokers, adjusting for sociodemographic variables b. Comparisons between subjects with month TD and ever-smokers. The adjusted ORs of sociodemographic variables for month TD among ever-smokers are presented in Table 3. The variables associated with month TD differed in and Table 3 Adjusted a odds ratios of sociodemographic variables for month tobacco dependence b TD among ever-smokers in and Table 4 presents the adjusted ORs of lifetime psychiatric disorders. Compared with the never-smoker group, the ever-smoker group was more associated with alcohol dependence and abuse both in and Table 4 Adjusted a odds ratios of lifetime psychiatric disorders for never-smokers, ever-smokers without month tobacco dependence TD , and month TD in and This is the first study to examine the prevalence of month TD among ever-smokers in the general population. We also compared the prevalence in and in order to evaluate changes over the yr period. Two major findings emerged from this study. Second, subjects with month TD showed a higher comorbidity with alcohol dependence. Between and , the prevalence of ever-smokers significantly increased in South Korea from Previous studies showed that the prevalence of ever-smokers who had smoked daily for more than one month at some time was estimated as On the other hand, the lifetime prevalence of TD was estimated to be Although the prevalence of those with month TD and ever-smokers were different in these studies, rates between the two were similar for these three previous studies and for the present study. Dependence rates among drug ever-users indicate the risk of developing dependence after drug exposure 8. The results of this study indicate that tobacco use is associated with strong dependence. Anthony et al. Gender differences between the rates of month TD among ever-smokers that were observed in disappeared in The result implies that the susceptibility for TD is currently equal to both genders in Korea as in Western countries. Moreover, TD was found to be closely associated with alcohol dependence, which concurs with previous studies 18 - Some evidence indicates shared genetic influences concerning the development of tobacco and alcohol dependence 21 , and of shared physiological effects, cross-tolerances, or cueing 22 , With regard to physiological effects, alcohol users may smoke to decrease some of the negative effects from alcohol Alcohol dependence is another major health problem in Korea, with a report that the lifetime prevalence was estimated as 8. Significant associations have been found between TD and alcohol use disorders and mood and anxiety disorders 17 - 19 , Mood disorders are commonly found among Korean adults It is noticeable in this study that TD was also significantly associated with other psychiatric disorders including alcohol abuse, major depressive disorder, and anxiety disorders in but not in This is mainly attributable to the exclusion criteria of the DSM-IV, where symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance We consider that it may be difficult to decide whether depression or anxiety results from tobacco use because subjects are more likely to agree that symptoms stem from TD rather than a psychiatric illness. Although the results of the present study showed that the rates of TD among ever-smokers are consistent, our study had some important limitations. The first concerns the retrospective nature of the data used, as recall bias might have affected the accuracies of prevalence and illness duration data. Second, non-response might also have impacted the results, as it has been reported that non-respondents have higher rates of mental disorders than respondents. Third, TD was diagnosed with structured interviews by trained interviewers, not with clinical interviews by psychiatrists. There also are limitations on the diagnostic accuracy of TD. Lastly, cohort effects might have influenced the results. Although age and gender rates were similar between the and survey, they were different cohorts. TD is a clear barrier to smoking cessation, and continued smoking increases mortality and morbidity. Further research is needed to diagnose vulnerable groups before exposure to tobacco in order to elucidate the mechanisms of TD and to allow adequate prevention planning. The authors thank the interviewers who participated in this study and the Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare for cooperation. Copy and paste a formatted citation from below or use one of the hyperlinks at the bottom to download a file for import into a bibliography manager. Home Archive v. Published online Apr 20, Author information. Author notes. Copyright and License. Andrew's Neuropsychiatric Hospital, Icheon, Korea. Address for correspondence: Maeng Je Cho, M. Received January 15, ; Accepted March 03, Go to:. Tobacco Use Disorder ; Prevalence ; Comorbidity. Procedure and participants The data were derived from the national study by Lee et al. Statistical analysis Weighted values were calculated for respondents and used to adjust data, in order to approximate the national population in terms of age and gender in each catchment area, as defined by the Korean National Statistical Office's census. Longitudinal comparisons of the prevalence of month TD among ever-smokers Sociodemographic data for the subjects were listed in Table 1 , 2 presents the prevalence of ever-smokers, month TD, and month TD among ever-smokers. Table 1 Description of samples weighted Click for larger image. Table 2 Prevalence and adjusted odds ratios of to for ever-smokers, month tobacco dependence a TD , and month TD among ever-smokers, adjusting for sociodemographic variables b Click for larger image. Comparisons between subjects with month TD and ever-smokers The adjusted ORs of sociodemographic variables for month TD among ever-smokers are presented in Table 3. Table 3 Adjusted a odds ratios of sociodemographic variables for month tobacco dependence b TD among ever-smokers in and Click for larger image. Table 4 Adjusted a odds ratios of lifetime psychiatric disorders for never-smokers, ever-smokers without month tobacco dependence TD , and month TD in and Click for larger image. Smoking vs other risk factors as the cause of smoking-attributable deaths: confounding in the courtroom. JAMA ;— PubMed CrossRef. Effects of smoking on the mortality of lung cancer in Korean men. Yonsei Med J ;— Nicotine dependence, quit attempts, and quitting among smokers in a regional population sample from a country with a high prevalence of tobacco smoking. Prev Med ;— Prevalence of tobacco dependence and withdrawal. Am J Psychiatry ;— Drug Alcohol Depend ;— Nicotine dependence in the United States: prevalence, trends, and smoking persistence. Arch Gen Psychiatry ;— Comparative epidemiology of dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substance, and inhallants: basic findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Exp Clin Psychopharm ;— Psychiatric epidemiology in Korea. Part II: Urban and rural differences. J Nerv Ment Dis ;— Its history, characteristics, and validity. Historical context, major objectives, and study population characteristics. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. J Korean Neuropsychiatr Assoc ;— Nicotine dependence, major depression, and anxiety in young adults. Nicotine dependence and psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Addiction ;— Nicotine, alcohol and drug dependence and psychiatric comorbidity. Results of a national household survey. Br J Psychiatry ;— Nicotine addiction and comorbidity with alcohol abuse and mental illness. Nat Neurosci ;— A comparison of the effects of chronic nicotine infusion on tolerance to nicotine and cross-tolerance to ethanol in long- and short-sleep mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther ;— Genotype regulates the development of tolerance to ethanol and cross-tolerance to nicotine. Alcohol ;— Prevalence of alcohol use disorder in a South Korean community--changes in the pattern of prevalence over the past 15 years. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol ;— Breslau N. Psychiatric comorbidity of smoking and nicotine dependence. Behav Genet ;— Prevalence of symptoms of depression in a nationwide sample of Korean adults. Psychiatry Res ;— Crossref 4. PubMed 2. Scopus 4. Web of Science 3. Page Views 8. PDF Downloads 1. Links to. Show all Cited by Crossref. Is Cited by the Following Articles in. Citation successfully copied. Permalink information copied to clipboard.

How can I buy cocaine online in Goyang