How can I buy cocaine online in Ahvaz

__________________________

📍 Verified store!

📍 Guarantees! Quality! Reviews!

__________________________

▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼ ▼▼

▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ▲▲

How can I buy cocaine online in Ahvaz

Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Hashem Mohamadian orcid. Fataneh Ghorbanyjavadpour orcid. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s and the copyright owner s are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. We aimed to assess quality of life related to oral health in narcotic or stimulant users those were referred to maintenance methadone therapy MMT centers in Ahvaz City, Iran. It was a cross-sectional study based on exploratory approach which has conducted on narcotic and stimulant users in Ahvaz city; during 15th May till September Data was selected by available non-random sampling method. The data collection tools included the demographic variables and the standard OHIP questionnaires. All tests were used as descriptive statistics, Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests, independent t -test, one-way analysis of variance. P -values of less than 0. The mean and standard deviation of the participants' age was The quality-of-life scores related to oral health were totally Quality of life related to OHIP was more unfavorable in stimulant users than narcotic users. So, policy makers and authorities are required to focus their interventions and research programs to improve health-related quality of life in users, especially stimulant. Keywords: quality of life related to oral health, addict, narcotics, stimulants, quality of life. Use of addictive substances is among the most challenging and complex health problems leading to a wide range of cardiovascular, mental and psychological, metabolic, endocrine, and infectious disorders 1. Addiction to new drugs and industrial substances not only gives rise to many social and economic problems, but also causes damage to oral health 2. Opioids, as the most commonly used drug in Iran, include opium, syrup, heroin, and codeine used orally, by inhalation, or by injection. Other substances used in Iran include cannabis from the cannabis group , stimulants such as methylphenidate under the brand name of Ritalin from the amphetamine group , ecstasy from the amphetamine group , as well as cocaine and LSD from the hallucinogenic group 2. The use of narcotics or stimulants causes dry mouth or xerostomia, which in turn reduces the saliva pH and increases the formation of plaque and dental plaque. All these factors increase the incidence of tooth decay and periodontal disease 1. Moreover, narcotic and stimulant addiction can increase the tendency to intake simple sugars, which is an effective factor in causing caries and bruxism and increasing tooth sensitivity and necrotic gingivitis 3. Given that narcotic or stimulant addiction reduces motivation and self-confidence, addicts and those treated with methadone have lower rates of oral hygiene than non-addicts 4. Mental problems such as depression caused by drug addiction can eventually lead to neglect oral care and follow-up of dental treatment except in emergencies 5 , 6. Health-related quality of life is specifically associated with quality of life in relation to health and disease, which is a multidimensional concept. Oral health quality of life is one of these dimensions since oral diseases have been proven to affect the quality of life 1. Oral health-related quality of life is defined as an individual's personal assessment of the effects of functional, physical, and social factors as well as experience of oral pain and discomfort on different aspects of their life 7. Given the role that oral conditions play in people's social relations, appearance, self-confidence, as well as speaking, chewing, tasting, and swallowing processes, they affect one's pleasure experienced from life. Therefore, the status of oral health-related quality of life affects people's lives in both physical and mental dimensions 8. The seriousness and importance of dental problems in treating substance abusers necessitate establishment of an accessible dental care program. For example, the toothache interfering with the process of addiction treatment may cause relapse in addicts. In addition, poor appearance and improper functioning of the dental problems can cause isolation and non-compliance with the treatment and care process 9. So far, few studies were conducted on oral health and its related quality of life among the addicts worldwide 10 — 12 and in Iranian cities of Yazd, Mashhad, Isfahan, and Tehran 13 — As they noted, stimulants and morphine were the most commonly used drug among women and men, respectively Furthermore, the oral and dental treatment needs of the addicted population are wide and should be followed up 14 , Akbari et al. In this regard and since no research has ever investigated oral health status related to narcotic and stimulant abuse in Ahvaz City, the present study was conducted. The aim was to determine the quality of life related to oral health of narcotic and stimulant addicts who referred to maintenance methadone therapy MMT centers in Ahvaz City in It was a cross-sectional study based on exploratory approach which has carried out among narcotic and stimulants users who referred to MMT centers using available non-random sampling method in Ahvaz City during 15th May till September The cluster sampling method was conducted from the MMT centers in the east and west of Ahvaz. From each cluster, nine centers were randomly selected. In each center, available sampling method was applied and eligible patients who referred to the MMT centers entered the study. Initially, the participants were explained about the research goal and process. Followed by obtaining informed consent forms, the researcher completed the questionnaires for each participant. Inclusion criteria were having satisfaction to participate in the study, 18 years of age and older, as well as ability to communicate and answer the questions. Exclusion criteria included unwillingness to continue cooperation at any stage of the study and incomplete questionnaires. The participants provided answers to the questionnaire items, which were facilitated or completed by the researcher or the patient's companions if necessary. The study tools included a questionnaire of demographic and contextual variables containing information such as age, gender, education, marriage, number of children, employment, life partners, economic status, insurance status, underlying disease, toothbrush and toothpaste use status, last dentist visit, and number of missing teeth. Furthermore, the standard questionnaire of quality of life related to OHIP was administrated, which was designed to measure the effects of oral disorders on people's health based on the respondents' self-judgment. This questionnaire was translated into Persian by Motallebnejad et al. This questionnaire investigates seven dimensions of functional limitation, physical pain, mental distress, physical disability, mental disability, social disability, and physical disability. The minimum and maximum attainable scores of the questionnaire are 14 and 70, respectively, so that greater scores indicate higher quality of life related to oral health In the study by Navabi et al. In the present study, Cronbach's alpha coefficient was calculated and showed a good result for all dimensions Functional limitations 0. Validity of instrumentation with the exploratory agent approach was acceptable for the opioid group In order to observe ethical considerations, participants were ensured about confidentiality of information. To this end, all questionnaires were coded. Moreover, the participants were clearly explained about the study objectives and finally, those who were willing to participate in the study were surveyed. Descriptive statistics were applied to describe characteristics of the participants, central indices, mean dispersion, and standard deviation were used. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was also applied to evaluate distribution of data, while independent t -test and one-way analysis of variance were run to determine the relationship between variables. The mean age of addicts who referred to addiction treatment centers in Ahvaz was Table 1 represents other demographic characteristics of the participants along with the relationship of these characteristics with the mean quality of life related to oral health. The mean scores of qualities of life related to oral health and its dimensions were also determined based on the type of substance used; i. In other words, the mean quality of life related to oral health was higher in narcotic addicts than stimulant users. Later, intensity of the relationship was examined between the dimensions of oral health-related quality of life and the overall score of OHIP in terms of the substance type. Figures 1 — 3 illustrate the theoretical model obtained. Status and severity of the relationship between the scores in the dimensions of OHIP scale and the total score of quality of life related to oral health in stimulant addicts. Status and severity of the relationship between scores in the dimensions of OHIP scale and the total score of quality of life related to oral health in narcotic and stimulant users. The present study aimed at evaluating the quality of life related to oral health in patients who referred to MMT centers. The findings showed that the quality of life associated with oral health was significantly lower in people who use stimulants than narcotics. Although this rate of discrepancy was not severe, a significant difference was observed between scores of the two groups of drug abusers in the areas of mental disability, mental distress, and physical disability. More specifically, the effect of oral problems caused by using stimulants was higher on dimensions of quality of life, such as distraction, stress, peace disturbance, confusion in group, life dissatisfaction, and inability to perform activities. In other words, stimulants affect mental health and quality of life related to oral health negatively. Consistent with these findings, Nazemi et al. Our findings on Figure 1 also corroborate this point. According to Figure 2 , in addicts who use narcotics, physical disability was most associated with quality of life related to health. These results confirm the findings reported in the literature indicating that the type of substances applied affect the status of oral health indicators This finding can be justified by mentioning that the most common oral lesions caused by using stimulants include dry mouth 16 , 24 , 25 , spongy gingiva, and erythematosus with margin 16 that plays the most important role in the decline of their oral health Islami et al. In contrast, missing teeth and caries had a significant relationship with drug abuse Status and severity of the relationship between scores in the dimensions of OHIP scale and the total score of quality of life related to oral health in narcotic user. Generalized pigmentation was observed only in methamphetamine users. According to the literature, the duration of drug withdrawal was significantly associated with the incidence of oral lesions, so that less pigmented lesions were observed in addicts who have quit their addiction even for 1 month. In other words, increased duration of withdrawal improved the pink color, firmness, and stippled knife edge margin of the gum Eslami et al. This pattern change can explain higher incidence of oral health-related psychological problems followed by using stimulants. In this regard, many other factors may be influential, including the effect of addiction treatment methods, such as methadone therapy and withdrawal duration A study was investigated amphetamine-dependent people and found that they intook more sugary foods, crumbs instead of main meals , and drank cranberry drinks compared with the healthy individuals. Drug addicts believed that substance use reduced their appetite and increased their cravings for sugar In the present study, only one fourth of those who referred to the substance abuse centers had been visited by dental professionals during the past year and a significant percentage of participants reported lack of a history of visits to dentists over the last 3 years. In Boston, about half of men and women who were addicted to drugs had more than a year since their last dental visit or were unable to recall the time of their last visit According to the results of other studies, it seems that referring to dentists to receive educational and medical services is low among drug addicts around the world. By comparing the results of this study with those reported in the literature, it can be claimed that the type of substance used by addicts is probably a more decisive factor than other personal variables in terms of the quality of life related to oral health. This finding can be justified by mentioning that quality of life related to oral health showed no significant difference not only among different levels of age, education, employment, economic status, marriage, and chronic illness, but also in other underlying factors such as a history of dental visits or the use of toothbrushes. Such discrepancy in the findings may be attributed to the sample size or the participants' characteristics since they were selected among patients who referred to MMT centers through available sampling method. Therefore, findings of the study are not generalizable to the population. In the studies by Shekarchizadeh et al. This finding is in contrary to the findings of the present study. Given that the participants of the above-mentioned studies included women, retired, or elderlies of different cities, differences in the results can be attributed to diversity in their nutritional, environmental, cultural, or genetic factors. However, results of the studies by Akbari 13 , Khabazian 32 , Gholami 31 , and Khatmi Nasab 33 are consistent with our findings in reporting that age and education had no relationship with quality of life related to oral health 13 , 31 — In this study, the total score of the oral health-related quality of life was Considering that these mean scores were received from the addicts who referred to addiction treatment centers, our findings cannot be representative of all addicts in Ahvaz. Moreover, substance use rates are naturally higher among the large population of addicts who are homeless and sleep on the street. As a result, future researchers are recommended to investigate addicts who are not in medical centers to provide a more comprehensive viewpoint in this area. Due to the cross-sectional nature of this study, some limitations existed in reporting the definitive causal relationship between the studied variables. Furthermore, this study did not investigate addicts under treatment due to specific problems in accessing them. Based on the findings, the quality of life index related to oral health is more unfavorable in stimulant users than narcotic users. Therefore, authorities are recommended to focus their interventions and research programs to improve health-related quality of life in addicts, especially stimulant users. The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences of Ethics Committee. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements. MC was principal investigators of the study. MC and HM were advisors of the study and performed the statistical analysis. FS was collected the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors contributed to the design, data analysis, assisted in the preparation of the final version of the manuscript, read, and approved the final version of the manuscript. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. The participants as well as the officials of the University of Medical Sciences and Methadone Therapy Centers in Ahvaz are appreciated for their cooperation in the present study. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Front Public Health. Find articles by Fatemeh Saki. Find articles by Maria Cheraghi. Find articles by Hashem Mohamadian. Find articles by Fataneh Ghorbanyjavadpour. Received Jan 7; Accepted Apr 11; Collection date Relationship between quality of life related to oral health and variables of study. Open in a new tab. Mean scores of qualities of life related to oral health of addicts wise. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

Investigation on the Effect of Ketotifen Upon Morphine Tolerance and Dependence in Mice

How can I buy cocaine online in Ahvaz

Jundishapur J Nat Pharm Prod. Morphine Ketotifen Tolerance Dependence Mice. Morphine is one of the most common drugs for treatment of pain in a clinic, while its successive use leads to development of tolerance and dependence 1 , 2. Drug addiction is a chronic and relapsing disease with implication in brain neurobiology and behavior that is associated with drug seeking and persistence of memory 3. Morphine in high doses causes euphoria, analgesia, respiratory depression, reduction of gastrointestinal motility, miosis, and dependency 4 , 5. It has been well confirmed that continuous administration of morphine affects mesolimbic dopaminergic system and leads to development of tolerance and dependence 6 , 7. One of the problems after stopping morphine administration is drug withdrawal followed by symptoms such as anxiety, sweating, increased respiratory rate and body temperature, piloerection, restlessness, nausea, diarrhea, lacrimation, abdominal pain, and hyperreflexia 7 , 8. In spite of many efforts for exact perception of morphine tolerance and dependence, there are still many questions that are needed to be worked on 1. Based on previous studies, tolerance and dependence include two phases; the induction phase, in which changes occur during administration, and the expression phase, in which changes occur after drug cessation 9. Histamine is one of the first neurotransmitters investigated on morphine tolerance and dependence and studies on it have significantly increased in these years Previous researches demonstrated that subsequent administration of morphine in tolerance phase increases histamine turnover in animal brains 11 , In addition, investigations on histamine receptors H 1 and H 2 showed that histamine H 1 receptors play an important role in morphine tolerance and dependence 13 - Ketotifen is a H 1 receptor antagonist and a mast cell stabilizer is used for asthma, atopic dermatitis, seasonal rhinitis, acute and chronic urticaria, allergic conjunctivitis, and food allergy-related 16 - Nowadays, the use of non-opioid compounds and natural products, especially medicinal plants, has increased in order to avoid unwanted effects of opioids include tolerance, dependence, and euphoria Accordingly, this research was designed to investigate the role of ketotifen, as a non-opioid drug, in morphine tolerance and dependence in mice. All mice were used only once, and in order to reduce stress response, the animals were located in the experimental environment 2 days before starting of study. The used drugs including morphine sulfate Darupakhsh Pharmaceutical Co, Tehran, Iran was injected subcutaneously s. We used Eddy and Leimbach's method for study of pain reflexes in reaction to heating stimulus in the hot-plate test The response latency was assessed based on either hind licking or jumping reaction, whichever occurred sooner, after first contact with the plate. The cut-off time was set as 20 seconds to prevent damage to the animal. The hot-plate latency was calculated twice before drug injection and twice after; then, the average of the two values was applied to baseline and drug data. The hot-plate test was carried out on each group at 15, 30, 60, and 90 minutes followed by drug administration. Morphine tolerance was assessed in a hot plate model of antinociception. Ketotifen effects were examined in two acute and chronic studies to evaluate the role of ketotifen in the induction and expression of morphine tolerance and dependence Figure 1. Schematic represents timeline induction of morphine tolerance and dependence in mice and treatment with ketotifen. On the 6th day of the experiment, the hot-plate test was immediately performed after the last dose of morphine. The degree of tolerance was determined according to the measured latency time reduction in the hot-plate test. Ketotifen, in an acute study was administered in day six of the experiment 30 minutes before morphine and in chronic study before each dose of morphine except on the 6th day. For measurement jumping, each mouse was placed on a platform 40 cm length, 25 cm width and 45 cm high during 30 minutes and the frequency of jumps was recorded. In addition, The Mice's body weight variations were evaluated 1h after the naloxone administration. AUC is the area under the curve relevant to respective graph. Moreover, we found out these effects were dose dependent Figure 2. Antinociceptive effect of ketotifen in hot-plate test. AUC is the area under the curve relevant to above graph. Significant difference with VEH. Ketotifen effect on antinociceptive effect of single dose of morphine. The acute administration of ketotifen resulted in significant prevention of morphine tolerance Figure 4. The results confirmed that ketotifen increase latency time, significantly. This suggests that ketotifen reverses morphine tolerance in mice Figure 4. Effect of acute and chronic administration of ketotifen on morphine tolerance. Effects of acute and chronic administration of ketotifen on jumping number. Effects of acute and chronic administration of ketotifen on weight loss in morphine dependent mice. Tolerance is a reduction of pharmacological response to a drug after its long term or repeated use and dose increasing is required to obtain the previous response 22 , Dependency can be defined as an altered physiologically state that requires repeated usage or administration for prevention of abstinence and withdrawal syndrome Morphine is used for pain relief in cancer patients and people with chronic pain, however, it has a potential ability to create dependency 4 , In this study, we investigated the effect of ketotifen on morphine tolerance and dependence in mice and resulted in novel findings on improvement of morphine tolerance and dependence. Histamine and its H 1 and H 2 receptors have a key role in the development of morphine tolerance and dependence It has been reported that H 1 receptor antagonists increase the antinociceptive effect of morphine In confirmation, histamine H 1 receptor agonist led to increase of morphine tolerance and dependence Histamine H 2 receptor antagonist resulted in inhibition of antinociceptive induced by morphine administration Therefore, we find that histamine shares a possible interaction with morphine in opioids tolerance and dependence. The use of opioids increases dopamine release from ventral tegmental area VTA to nucleus accumbens NAc in mesolimbic, a reward pathway that lead to euphoria and pleasure. The chronic administration of opioids leads to demanding more opioid for releasing the same amount of dopamine from VTA brain cells to NAc through the reward system and ultimately leads to tolerance of opioid. However, during the absence of opioids, the high activity of LC leads to manifestation of panic, anxiety, muscle cramps, and diarrhea 27 , Moreover, evaluation of dopamine level followed by naloxone-induced withdrawal syndrome showed occurrence of symptoms of withdrawal for example; jumping associated with increasing of dopamine level in the brain In addition, it was confirmed that histamine is a stimulatory agent for noradrenergic neurons in the LC It well confirmed N-methyl-d-aspartate NMDA receptor antagonist, memantine reduce expression, and induction of morphine-dependence Furthermore, histamine potentiates the NMDA currents in same concentrations that activates H 1 and H 2 histamine receptors 32 , Thus, modulation of morphine actions by NMDA receptors and the regulatory properties of histamine on NMDA receptors can affect initiation and maintenance of tolerance and dependence 34 , Moreover, histamine H 1 receptor antagonists resulted in dopamine reduction in the neostriatum and NAc Histamine may enhance glutamate signaling through NMDA receptors, which will increase the dopamine extracellular level. These evidences can support effects of ketotifen in improvement of morphine tolerance and dependence. Most of the inputs to the NAc are glutamatergic, and these excitatory inputs can result in releasing of dopamine from striatatum. Histamine H 1 receptor antagonists have an inhibitory effect on dopamine activity and monoamine reuptake Morphine causes oxidative stress and triggering formation and release of free radicals through opioids receptors 37 and implications of histamine release well marked by free radicals In this respect, the use of ketotifen can affect the physiopathology of opioids addiction and lead to development of an agent for the treatment of opioids tolerance and dependence. It has been reported that mast cells could be of interest in the resolving of opioids dependence and attenuation of withdrawal signs due to the fact that the number of degranulated mast cells in thalamus significantly increase by naloxone in chronic morphine treated mice Toll like receptors TLRs are important regulators of the innate immune system and activation of mast cells TLRs are involved in neuropathological process of opioids tolerance as well as hyperalgesia and activation of glial by opioids and releasing of pro-inflammatory factors and cytokines Thus, activation of TLRs stimulates the nerves and their inhibition by TLR antagonists reduces neuropathic pain and could relieve us from unwanted effects of opioids including tolerance, dependence, and reward due to opioids 41 , This confirms that ketotifen, as an antagonist of TLRs-4 43 , like naloxone can resolve the unwanted effects of opioids. Morphine tolerance implicates the NMDA receptors activation and subsequent formation of nitric oxide by neuronal nitric oxide synthase Histamine activates and increases NMDA currents Overall, histamine is involved in the development of morphine tolerance and dependence, which can be blocked by ketotifen. Finally, we propose that attenuation of tolerance and withdrawal signs can express the modulatory effects of ketotifen and the possible role of histamine in the induction and expression of morphine tolerance and dependence. Thus, ketotifen can be used in conjunction with opioids to prevent tolerance and dependence to opioids and it can also be used in opioids addicted people to prevent withdrawal signs or resolve dependence. Bhargava HN. Diversity of agents that modify opioid tolerance, physical dependence, abstinence syndrome, and self-administrative behavior. Pharmacol Rev. Bekhit MH. Opioid-induced hyperalgesia and tolerance. Am J Ther. Learning and memory in addiction. Addiction and the brain: the role of neurotransmitters in the cause and treatment of drug dependence. Przewlocki R. Opioid abuse and brain gene expression. Eur J Pharmacol. Neurobiology of drug addiction. Stages and pathways of drug involvement: examining the gateway hypothesis. New York: Cambridge University Press; Zarrindast MR, Farzin D. Nicotine attenuates naloxone-induced jumping behaviour in morphine-dependent mice. Morphine analgesia and acute physical dependence: rapid onset of two opposing, dose-related processes. Brain Res. Role of nitric oxide in the induction and expression of morphine tolerance and dependence in mice. Brit J Pharmacol. The effects of chronic morphine treatment on histamine concentration and histidine decarboxylase activity in rat brain. Prog Neuro Psychopharmacol. Morphine-induced changes in histamine dynamics in mouse brain. J Neurochem. Histamine turnover in the brain of morphine-dependent mice. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. The possible role of brain histamine and H1 and H2 receptors in the development of morphine tolerance and physical dependence in mice. Agents Actions. The effects of L-histidine and of specific histamine receptor agonists, on the expression of morphine tolerance and physical dependence in mice. Inhibition of morphine antinociception by centrally administered histamine H2 receptor antagonists. Craps L. Ketotifen in the oral prophylaxis of bronchial asthma: a review. Prophylaxis of asthma with ketotifen in children and adolescents: a review. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic use in asthma and allergic disorders. Thymus daenensis extract and essential oils effects on morphine withdrawal signs in mice. Eddy NB. Heroin Diacetylmorphine : laboratory and clinical evaluation of its effectiveness and addiction liability. Bull Narcotics. Modulation of morphine antinociceptive tolerance and physical dependence by co-administration of simvastatin. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. AAPS J. Definitions related to the use of opioids for the treatment of pain: consensus statement of the american academy of pain medicine, the american pain society, and the american society of addiction medicine. American Society of Addiction Medicine,. Basic and clinical pharmacology lange basic science. McGraw-Hill Education; Relationships among morphine metabolism, pain and side effects during long-term treatment: an update. J Pain Symptom Manage. Effect of H1 blockers alone and in combination with morphine to produce antinociception in mice. The neurobiology of opioid dependence: implications for treatment. Sci Pract Perspect. Akaoka H, Aston-Jones G. Opiate withdrawal-induced hyperactivity of locus coeruleus neurons is substantially mediated by augmented excitatory amino acid input. J Neurosci. Elevation of brain dopamine during naloxone-precipitated withdrawal in morphine-dependent mice and rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. Histamine excites noradrenergic neurons in locus coeruleus in rats. Popik P, Skolnick P. The NMDA antagonist memantine blocks the expression and maintenance of morphine dependence. Histamine potentiates N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors by interacting with an allosteric site distinct from the polyamine binding site. The physiology of brain histamine. Prog Neurobiol. Imankhah T, Ghanbarzadeh S. Effect of clonidine and ketotifen on tolerance induced to morphine antinociception in mice. Res Pharmaceutical Sc. Modulation of opioid actions by nitric oxide signaling. Dopaminergic effects of histamine administration in the nucleus accumbens and the impact of H1-receptor blockade. Morphine as a potential oxidative stress-causing agent. Mini Rev Org Chem. Mannaioni P, Masini E. The release of histamine by free radicals. Free Radic Biol Med. Naloxone-induced morphine withdrawal increases the number and degranulation of mast cells in the thalamus of the mouse. Toll-like receptor-mediated activation of mast cells: implications for allergic disease? Int Arch Allergy Immunol. Opioid-induced glial activation: mechanisms of activation and implications for opioid analgesia, dependence, and reward. Antagonists of toll like receptor 4 maybe a new strategy to counteract opioid-induced hyperalgesia and opioid tolerance. Med Hypotheses. Evidence that tricyclic small molecules may possess toll-like receptor and myeloid differentiation protein 2 activity. We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience. They also allow us to analyze user behavior in order to constantly improve the website for you. Abstract Background: Morphine is one of the most common drugs for intense pain relief in a clinic, however, its chronic use and repeated administration leads to morphine tolerance and dependence. Objectives: In this study, effects of ketotifen as histamine H 1 receptor antagonist and mast cell stabilizer have been investigated on the induction and expression of morphine tolerance and dependence in mice. Methods: At first, antinociceptive effects of ketotifen were measured using hot-plate test to find out the subeffective doses of ketotifen. Morphine tolerance was evaluated in hot plate model of antinociception. Ketotifen effects were assessed in two methods of acute and chronic administration to define its role in the expression and induction of morphine tolerance and dependence, respectively. Co-administration of ketotifen with morphine in the induction phase attenuated morphine tolerance and reduced withdrawal signs. Conclusions: Accordingly, ketotifen can be used in conjunction with opioids to reduce opioid tolerance and dependence. It can also be considered in treating people addicted to opioids. Background Morphine is one of the most common drugs for treatment of pain in a clinic, while its successive use leads to development of tolerance and dependence 1 , 2. Methods 2. Drugs The used drugs including morphine sulfate Darupakhsh Pharmaceutical Co, Tehran, Iran was injected subcutaneously s. The Mouse Hot-Plate Test We used Eddy and Leimbach's method for study of pain reflexes in reaction to heating stimulus in the hot-plate test Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. References 1. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4. Leave a comment here:. Cookie Setting We use cookies to provide you with the best possible experience.

How can I buy cocaine online in Ahvaz