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Male seahorses are the feminist boyfriends you wish you had.
1. Female clownfish run this world.
Clownfish can change sex on their own, but the largest, most dominant fish in a pair or group are always female by default, while the rest are male. In the event of a female clownfish's death, the biggest, most aggressive male in the group becomes female, and the next-most-dominant male in the group normally becomes their breeding partner. It's a hierarchy, and being a female is winning.
First off, they "dance" with their female mating partner every morning , coiling their tails together and changing colors like they're in their own version of La La Land . But secondly – male seahorses carry the eggs distributed from the female, and then spend a LOT of time with their babies, sometimes even letting them ride on their tail. Basically, male seahorses are the hot feminist dads of the ocean.
3. Male octopi risk their lives to have sex.
Octopi are highly antisocial and aggressive towards each other, so much so that a male trying to impregnate a female has to worry about her strangling and devouring him if she happens to be hungry that day . Which doubly sucks, because male octopi have to insert a tentacle inside her to deposit their sperm, which takes longer and makes them way more likely to die doing it.
4. Male sharks give the most hickies.
Part of the mating process for sharks involves a male giving a female "love bites" to express interest in mating, and then using their teeth to hold the female down as they internally release their sperm. Subsequently, female sharks have developed really thick skin to deal with this bullshit.
5. Some female sharks have had babies without sperm.
This has only happened a few times, but researchers have found individual cases of asexual reproduction in a female Leopard shark and Hammerhead shark , respectively. In both cases, the females had no contact with male partners for a long period of time, yet managed to get pregnant all on their own. Men! Who needs them???
6. Flatworms fight each other with their penises during sex.
Flatworms have both male and female reproductive organs, but neither wants to actually have to be pregnant (TBH, I can 100 percent relate and if I could make a guy carry the baby, I would). The process of "penis fencing" can take up to an hour and the one who "loses" gets injected with sperm has to carry out the pregnancy. So yeah, actually, I take it back: I would choose always having to birth a child over anyone repeatedly whacking me with a pointy peen to decide who has to.
7. Female angler fish literally absorb the males during reproduction.
Male angler fish spend so much time trying to find a female ( their success rate is believed to be as low as one percent ) and when they do, t hey latch onto her...permanently . The female then goes on living her best, fiercest life as the male dissolves into her blood stream , becoming a sperm holder until she's finally ready to fertilize her eggs. And then she moves onto the next guy, able to soak up several men in her lifetime.
8 . Some shrimp are monogamous – but not by choice.
A type of glass sponge called the Venus' Flower Basket is the home of choice for two young shrimps in love .. The only problem is: at one point, the shrimps are STUCK INSIDE because they are too big to leave, living out the rest of their lives together inside a super-cramped apartment with (hopefully) a shrimp they don't hate. Their offspring, meanwhile, are small enough to fit through the sponge and leave to go find another nest to be trapped in forever. AKA THIS IS MY WORST NIGHTMARE.
9. Some underwater species don't have sex at all.
Clams, corals, anemones and jellyfish are just a few of the sea creatures who practice "broadcast spawning", AKA: they release their eggs and sperm freely into the open and let whatever happens, happen. A female moon jellyfish looking for sperm then collects what she finds, or corals' sperm and eggs combine to form larvae and then find a spot to start a new colony. This the most lax style of reproduction ever, and I'm here for it.
10. These fish have the most dramatic sex lives.
There are three types of male ocellated wrasses : the nester (the dominant, colorful male who courts females by building a nest for them to deposit egg cells in), the satellite (a smaller male who helps co-guard the nest with the nester, and also fertilizes the eggs when he can get the chance, because getting ladies on his own is tough) and the sneaker (tiniest male fish who darts into the nest real quick and ALSO fertilizes the eggs – because no females like him or want to mate with him). In short: a female ocellated wrasse signs up for one partner, but gets two other scrubs mixed in the deal. Even in the ocean, men can't be trusted.
×
This page contains archived content and is no longer being updated. At the time of publication, it represented the best available science.
By Michael Carlowicz
Design by Robert Simmon
April 5, 2012.
Introduction
What Does It Mean to be Hot?
What’s the Value of Land Skin Temperature?
2003–09 •
2003 •
2004 •
2005 •
2006 •
2007 •
2008 •
2009
By Michael Carlowicz
Design by Robert Simmon
April 5, 2012.
Introduction
What Does It Mean to be Hot?
What’s the Value of Land Skin Temperature?
References
Earth Observatory. (2006, August 1). Beating the Heat in the
World’s Big Cities.
Earth Observatory. (2006, November 24). The
Hottest Spot on Earth.
Gaffin, S. R., Rosenzweig, C., Eichenbaum-Pikser, J., Khanbilvardi, R. and Susca, T. (2010). A Temperature and Seasonal Energy Analysis of
Green, White, and Black Roofs. Columbia University Center for Climate Systems Research. Accessed
February 9, 2012.
Mildrexler, D. J., M. Zhao, and S. W. Running. (2011). A global comparison between station
air temperatures and MODIS land surface temperatures reveals the cooling role of forests. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 116, G03025.
Mildrexler, David J., Maosheng Zhao, Steven W. Running. (2011, July). Satellite Finds Highest Land Skin Temperatures on
Earth. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Volume 92, Issue 7 pp. 855-860.
NASA. (2012, March 7). Bright Is The New
Black: New York Roofs Go Cool. Accessed April 5, 2012.
National Public Radio. (2008, August 7). High Temps On Turf Fields Spark
Safety Concerns. Accessed February 9, 2012.
Pielke Sr., R. (2012, January 9). Important
Recent Studies By Mildrexler et al 2011a and 2011b On Monitoring the Hottest Land Surface Temperatures
On Earth. Accessed February 9, 2012.
Pielke Sr., R. (2006, November 30). EOS
Paper On The Hottest Spots on Earth Illustrates The Major Role of Landscape on Surface Temperatures.
Accessed February 9, 2012.
World Meteorological Organization. (n.d.). Global Weather and Climate
Extremes. Accessed February 13, 2012.
World Meteorological Organization. (2008). Measurement
of Temperature. Accessed February 22, 2012.
Heat
Land
Remote Sensing
In October 2004, ecologist Steve Running visited the Flaming Mountain, a ridge of dark red sandstone on the edge
of the Taklimakan Desert and the Tian Shan range. The surface of the mountain is said to reach temperatures of
50 to 80°C (122 to 175°F) in the summer, and a nearby tourist center marks the spot with a huge golden
thermometer. It is the hottest place in China, if not the world, or so says the local lore.
According to local lore, the Flaming Mountain is the hottest spot in China. After visiting the site,
scientists used NASA data to find out for sure. ( Photograph ©2011 oh
contraire.)
And that got Running thinking: exactly where is the hottest place on Earth? With some colleagues at the
University of Montana, he did some research and found that the location of the world’s hottest spot
changes, though the conditions don’t. Think dry, rocky, and dark-colored lands.
In July 1913, observers in Furnace Creek, California—Death Valley—watched the thermometer reach 56.7°C
(134°F) and declared it to be the highest temperature ever recorded on Earth. But just nine years later, on
September 13, 1922, a weather station in El Azizia, Libya, recorded a temperature of 58.0°C (136.4°F).
According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), that remains the highest air temperature ever
measured.
“Yet most of the places that call themselves the hottest on Earth are not even serious contenders,”
says Running. The reason is partly about where the measurements are made. But it is also a tale about how
temperature is measured.
In the remote, sparsely populated areas that are likely to be the world’s hottest, weather stations
(black dots) are widely spaced. Satellites provide a global view that can fill in the gaps. (Map by Robert
Simmon, using data from the WMO
& Natural Earth. )
“The World Meteorological Organization has approximately 11,119 weather stations on Earth’s land
surface collecting surface temperature observations,” notes David Mildrexler, also from the University of
Montana. “When compared to the 144.68 million square kilometers of land surface, that’s one station
every 13,012 square kilometers.”
“The Earth’s hot deserts—such as the Sahara, the Gobi, the Sonoran, and the Lut—are
climatically harsh and so remote that access for routine measurements and maintenance of a weather station is
impractical,” he adds. “The majority of Earth’s hottest spots are simply not being directly
measured by ground-based instruments.”
For a dozen years, NASA has operated the Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on two different satellites; first on Terra (launched in 1999) and then on
Aqua (2002). The instrument has 36 different spectral bands (groups of wavelengths) and many ways to view the
planet. One of them is the detection of thermal radiance, or the amount of infrared energy emitted by the land
surface. Since the two MODIS instruments scan the entire surface each day, they can provide a complete picture
of earthly temperatures and fill in the gaps between the weather stations.
On the warmest summer days, you may hear someone say: “it’s a hundred degrees in the shade. ”
It’s an old-fashioned phrase with an unintended kernel of insight.
Direct sunlight can heat surfaces well above air temperature. On one late winter afternoon when the air was
54°F (12°C), shaded areas ranged from 40–46°F (4.0–8.0°C), while sunny spots
were from 56–66°F (13–19°C). (NASA photograph by Robert Simmon.)
Air temperatures must be measured out of direct sunlight because the materials in and around the thermometer can
absorb radiation and affect the sensing of heat. You feel this with your own body: if you stand in direct
sunlight, you feel warmer because your skin is being heated by both the air and by the radiant energy from the
Sun.
To make an air temperature reading according to the World
Meteorological Organization standard (PDF), a thermometer must be situated 1.2 to 2 meters off the
ground and shielded from direct sun—though it cannot be placed in the shade of a building, mountain, or
tree either.
Accurate air temperature readings must be taken with thermometers that are carefully shielded from direct
sunlight. ( Photograph
©2006 Richard Allaway. )
MODIS measures something different: land skin temperature. LST is a measure of heating of the land surface—where
solar energy is absorbed and re-emitted—and it is often significantly hotter than air temperature. If you’ve
ever walked barefoot across hot sand or pavement on a summer day, you know the difference. The surface beneath
your feet feels much hotter than the air around your head.
Scientists first measured that difference in June 1915. “Around the same time that the Death Valley record
air temperature was measured, an analysis of the temperature conditions of air and soil was conducted in the
desert near Tucson, Arizona,” Mildrexler explains. In the midday sun, the temperature 0.4 centimeters
below the soil surface was 71.5°C (160.7°F). The air temperature, measured four feet above the ground,
was 42.5°C (108.5°F).
Dark pebbles help make Iran’s Lut Desert the hottest place on Earth. (Photograph ©2005 Jafar
Sabouri, Geological Survey of Iran. )
Air temperatures, on the one hand, are moderated by circulation—both the rising and sinking of air masses
into the atmosphere, and the horizontal movement of winds across the landscape. Moisture also regulates how much
heat can be stored in the air. “The value of the air temperature measurement, as opposed to land surface
temperature, is that it is what the human body, a building, or an ecosystem are feeling,” says Stuart
Gaffin, a climate researcher at Columbia University and NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
“Air temperatures largely dictate our thermal comfort level.”
On the other hand, land skin temperatures reflect the pure heating of a parcel of ground by radiation from the
sun, the atmosphere, and other heat flows. Therefore, the hottest LSTs are likely to occur where the skies are
clear, the soil is dry, and the winds are light. The final ingredient is the composition of the land surface. It
should absorb most light and reflect little—that is, have a low albedo—and it should not conduct
heat very well. Rocky deserts offer the perfect combination.
The dark surface of the Shanshan dune field absorbs sunlight more strongly than the adjacent Flaming
Mountain, making it much hotter. (NASA images by Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, using Landsat 7 data from
the USGS Global Visualization Viewer. )
In their analysis, Running, Mildrexler, and Maosheng Zhao scrutinized global MODIS measurements of LST from 2003
to 2009, paying special attention to where the hottest satellite temperatures matched up with the ideal terrain.
“To reveal the hottest spot on Earth,” Mildrexler notes, “we focused on barren areas and
sparsely vegetated, open shrublands.”
The formula brought them to the Lut Desert in Iran. And to the badlands of Queensland, Australia. And to the
Flaming Mountain.
Seven years of satellite temperature data show that the Lut Desert in Iran is the hottest spot on Earth. The
Lut Desert was hottest during 5 of the 7 years, and had the highest temperature overall: 70.7°C (159.3°F)
in 2005. (NASA maps by Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, using MODIS data from Mildrexler et al., 2011.
In five of the seven years—2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2009—the highest surface temperature on Earth
was found in the Lut Desert. The single highest LST recorded in any year, in any region, occurred there in 2005,
when MODIS recorded a temperature of 70.7°C (159.3°F)—more than 12°C (22°F) warmer than
the official air temperature record from Libya.
But the Lut was not the hottest spot every year. In 2003, the satellites recorded a temperature of 69.3°C
(156.7°F)—the second highest in the seven-year analysis—in the shrublands of Queensland. And in
2008, the Flaming Mountain got its due, with a yearly maximum temperature of 66.8°C (152.2°F) recorded
in the nearby Turpan Basin.
Researchers aren’t just interested in land surface heating for the trivia. Land surface temperatures are
directly related to human development of the land.
“The hottest temperatures were observed at locations without vegetation,” writes climatologist Roger
Pielke Sr. of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado.
“This means that if landscape change in a region results in less vegetation, the maximum surface
temperatures are expected to be hotter. If an oasis is developed by irrigation from subsurface water in a
desert, the maximum temperatures would be less.”
For a case study, Running, Mildrexler, and Zhao took an intensive look at the Pacific Northwest of the United
States. “In the Pacific Northwest, there is a spectacular ecological gradient of biomes and temperatures
from coast to rainforest to desert within a few hundred miles,” says Running. It is a near-perfect
location to demonstrate how land cover relates the capacity of the surface to absorb and radiate heat.
Satellite images show the relationship between the characteristics of a landscape, and day and night surface
skin temperature. Heavily forested areas remain relatively cool throughout the day, while barren and arid
areas can be tens of degrees warmer. These images were acquired in the early morning and afternoon of July
6, 2011. (NASA images by Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, using MODIS data.)
In densely forested areas near the coast, land surface temperatures and air temperatures are a close match
because trees can use their deep root systems to access so
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