History of english language. Контрольная работа. Английский.
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1. The old Germanic languages, their classification and principal
features
The history of the Germanic group begins with the appearance of
what is known as the Proto-Germanic language. As the Indo-Europeans extended
over a large territory, the ancient Germans or Teutons moved further north than
other tribes and settled on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in the region
of the Elbe. PG is an entirely pre-historical language: it was never recorded
in written form. The first mention of Germanic tribes was made by Pitheas, a
Greek historian and geographer of the 4 th . C.B.C. in COMMENTARIES ON
THE GALLIC WAR. In the 1 st c. A.D. Pliny the Elder, a prominent
Roman scientist and writer, in NATURAL HISRORY made a classified list of
Germanic tribes grouping them under six headings. Tacitus – the Roman historian
– compiled a detailed description of the life and customs of the ancient
Teutons. According to this division PG split into three branches: East Germanic
(Vindili in Pliny’s classification), North Germanic (Hillevonies) and West
Germanic (which embraces Ingveones, Istevones and Herminones),
East Germanic . The East
Germanic subgroup was formed by the tribes who returned from Scandinavia at the
beginning of our era. The most numerous and powerful of them were Goths. Their
western branch, the Visigote , invaded Roman territory. Linguistically
the Western Goths were soon absorbed by the native population, the Romanised
Celts. The Eastern Goths, Ostrogote , consolidated into a powerful tribal
alliance in the lower basin of the Dniester. They set up a kingdom in Northern
Italy. The Gothic language, now dead, has been preserved in written records of
the 4 th – 6 th century. The Goths were the first of the
Teutons to become Christian. In the 4 th c. Ulfilas, a West Gothic
bishop, made a translation of the Gospels from Greek into Gothic using a
modified form of the Greek alphabet. It is written on red parchment with silver
and golden letters and is known as the SILVER CODEX. It is one of the earliest
texts in thelanguages of the Germanic group.
North Germanic . The North
Germanic tribes lived on the southern coast of the Scandinavian peninsula and
in Northern Denmark. They didn’t take part in the migrations and were
relatively isolated. The speech of the North Germanic tribes showed little
dialectal variation until the 9 th c. and called Old Norse or Old
Scandinavian. It has come down to us in runic inscriptions. RI were carved on
objects made of hard material in an original Germanic alphabet known as the
runic alphabet or the runes. The principal linguistic differentiation in
Scandinavia corresponded to the political division into Sweden, Denmark and
Norway. The earliest written records in Old Danish, Old Norwegian and Old
Swedish date from the 13 th c. Later Danish and Swedish developed
into national literary languages. Norwegian was the last to develop into an
independent national language.
Also this group include the Icelandic and Faroese languages, whose
origin goes back to the Viking Age. In the Faroe Islands the West Norwegian
dialects brought by the Scandinavians developed into a separate language called
Faroese. For many centuries all writing was done in Danish, it was until 18 th
c. Faroese is spoken nowadays by about 30.000 people. Icelandic developed as a
separate language in spite of the political dependence of Iceland upon Denmark
and the dominance of Danish in official spheres. Icelandic has retained a more
archaic vocabulary and grammatical system, Written records date from the 12 th
and 13 th c. The most important records are: the ELDER EDDA- a
collection of heroic songs of the 12 th c., the YOUNGER EDDA (a text-book
for poets) and Old Icelandic Sagas.
West Germanic . The
would-be West Germanic tribes dwelt in the Lowlands between the Oder and the
Elbe bordering on the Slavonian tribes in the East and the Celtic tribes in the
South. The West Germans include several tribes: the Franconians (or Franks),
occupied the lower basin of the Rhine. They divided into Low, Middle and High
Franconians. The Angles anf the Frisians, the Jutes and the Saxons inhabited
the coastal area of the modern Netherlands, the Federal Republic of Germany and
the southern part of Denmark. A group of tribes known as High Germans (the
Alemanians, the Swabians, the Bavarians, the Thuringians and others) lived in
the mountainous southern regions of the Federal Republic of Germany. In the
Early Middle Ages the Franks consolidated into a powerful tribal alliance.
Towards the 8th c. their kingdom grew into one of the largest states in Western
Europe. In the 9 th c. it broke up into parts. Its western part
eventually became the basis of France. The eastern part, the east Franconian
Empire, comprised several kingdoms: Swabia or Alemania, Bavaria, East
Franconian and Saxony, Lorraine and Friesland. The Franconian dialects were
spoken in the extreme north of the Empire; in the later Middle Ages they
develop into Dutch – the language of the Low Countries (the Netherlands) and
Flemish – the language of Flanders. The earliest texts in Low Franconian date
from the 10 th c. The modern language of the Netherlands, formerly
called Dutch, and its variant in Belgium, known as the Flemish dialect, are now
treated as a single language, Netherlandish (20 mln people). The High German
group of tribes did not go far in their migration. The High German dialects
consolidated into a common language known as Old High German. The first written
records in OHG date from the 8 th and 9 th c. Towards the
12 th c. High German had intermixed with neighboring tongues,
especially Middle and High Franconian, and eventually developed into the
literary German language. (100 mln people) Yiddish grew from the High German
dialects which were adopted by numerous Jewish communities in the 11 th
and 12 th c. These dialects blended with elements of Hebrew and Slavonic.
At the later stage of the great migration period – in the 5 th c. – a
group of West Germanic tribes started out on their invasion of the British
Isles. They were The Angles, part of the Saxon and Frisian, and, probably, the
Jutes. Their dialects in the British Isles developed into the English language.
2. The chronological division of the History of English. General
characteristics of the OE language
The historical development of a language is a continuous
uninterrupted process without sudden breaks or rapid transformation. The
commonly accepted, traditional periodisation divides English history into three
periods: Old English, Middle English, and New English, with boundaries attached
to definite dates and historical events affecting the language. OE begins with
the Germanic settlement of Britain (5 th c.) or with beginning of
writing (7 th c.) and ends on the Norman Conquest (1066), ME begins
with the Norman Conquest and ends on the introduction of printing (1475), which
is the start of the Modern or New English; the New period lasts to the present
day. The History of the English language can be subdivided into seven periods.
The first –
pre-written or pre-historical period, which may be termed Early Old English,
lasts from the West Germanic invasion of Britain till the beginning of writing,
that is from the 5 th to the close of the 7 th c. It is the
stage of tribal dialects of the West Germanic invaders (Angels, Saxon, Jutes
and Frisians) The tribal dialects were used for oral communication, there were
no written form of English . The second historical period extends from
the 8 th c. till the end of the 11 th . The English language
of that time is referred to as Old English or Anglo-Saxon; it can also be
called Written OE. The tribal dialects gradually changed into local or regional
dialects. Towards the end of the period the differences between the dialects
grew and their relative position altered. OE was a typical OG language, with a
purely Germanic vocabulary, and few foreign borrowings; it displayed specific
phonetic peculiarities. As far as grammar is concerned, OE was an inflected
language with a well-developed system of morphological categories, especially in
the noun and adjective. The third period, known as Early Middle English,
starts after 1066, the year of the Norman Conquest, and covers 12, 13, and half
of the 14 th c. It was the stage of the greatest dialectical
divergence caused by the feudal system and by foreign influences – Scandinavian
and French. The dialectical division of present day English owes its origin to
this period of history. Under Norman rule the official language in England was
French. The local dialects were mainly used for oral communication and were but
little employed in writing. Early ME was a time of great changes at all levels
of the language, especially in grammar and lexis. English absorbed 2 layers of
lexical borrowings: the Scandinavian element in the North-Eastern area and the
French element in the speech of townspeople in the Soth-east. Phonetic and
grammatical changes proceeded at a high rate, unrestricted by written
tradition. The forth period – from the later 14 th c. till the
end of the 15 th – embraces the age of Chauser. We may call it Late
or Classical Middle English. It was the time of the restoration of English to
the position of the state and literary language and the time of literary
flourishing. The main dialect used in writing and literature was the mixed
dialect of London. The phonetic and grammatical structure had incorporated and
perpetuated the fundamental changes of the preceding period. Most of the
inflections in the nominal system – in nouns, adjectives, pronouns – had fallen
together. The verb system was expanding, as numerous new analytical forms and
verbal phrases on the way to becoming analytical forms were used alongside old
simple forms. The fifth period – Early New English – lasted from the
introduction of printing to the age of Shakespeare, that is from 1475 to c.
1660. The first printed book in English was published by William Caxton in
1475. This period is a sort of transition between two outstanding epochs of
literary efflorescence: the age of Chaucer and the age of Shakespeare. The
growth of the vocabulary was a natural reflection of the progress of culture in
the new, bourgeois society, and of the wider horizons of man’s activity.
Extensive phonetic changes were transforming the vowel system, which resulted n
the growing gap between the written and the spoken forms of the word. The
inventory of grammatical forms and syntactical constructions was almost the
same as in Mod E, but their use was different. The abundance of grammatical
units occurring without any apparent restrictions, or regularities produces an
impression of great «freedom of grammatical construction». The six period
extends from the mid-17 th c. to the close of the 18th c. In the history of
the language it is often called «the age of normalization and correctness».
This age witnessed the establishment of «norms». The norms were fixed as rules
and prescriptions of correct usage in the numerous dictionaries and
grammar-books published at the time and were spread through education and
writing. The neo-classical period discouraged variety and free choice in
pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. Word usage and grammatical construction
were subjected to restriction and normalization. The morphological system,
particularly the verb system, acquired a more strict symmetrical pattern. The
formation of new verbal grammatical categories was completed. The English
Language of the 19 th and 20 th c. represents the
seventh period in the History of English – Late New English or Modern
English . The classical language of literature was strictly distinguished
from the local dialects and the dialects of lower social ranks. The dialects
were used in oral communication and, as a rule, had no literary tradition. In
the 19 th and 20 th c. the English vocabulary has grown on
an unprecedented scale reflecting the rapid progress of technology, science and
culture and other multiple changes in all spheres of man’s activities. Linguistic
changes in phonetics and grammar have been confined to alterations in the
relative frequency and distribution of linguistic units^ some pronunciations
and forms have become old-fashioned or even obsolete, while other forms have
gained ground, and have been accepted as common usage.
General characteristics of the OE language. The history of the English language begins with the invasion of
the British Isles by Germanic tribes in the 5 th c. Prior to the
Germanic invasion the British Isles must have been inhabited for at least fifty
thousand years. The Celts came to Britain in three waves and immediately
preceded the Teutons. Economically and socially the Celts were a tribal society
made up of kins, kinship groups, clans and tribes; they practiced a primitive
agriculture, and carried on trade with Celtic Gaul.
3. OE dialects. The
role of the Wessex dialect
The Germanic tribes who settled in Britain in the 5 th and
6 th c. spoke closely related tribal dialects belonging to the West
Germanic subgroup. Their common origin and their separation from other related
tongues as well as their joint evolution in Britain transformed them eventually
into a single tongue, English. The OU dialects acquired certain common features
which distinguished them from continental Germanic tongues. Also they displayed
growing regional divergence. Tribal dialects were transformed into local or
regional dialects. The following four principal OE dialects are commonly
distinguished: Kentish , a dialect spoken in the area known now as Kent
and Surrey and in the Isle of Wight. It had developed from the tongue of the
Jutes and Frisians. West Saxon , the main dialect of the Saxon group,
spoken in the rest of England south of the Thames and the Bristol Channel,
except Wales and Cornwall, where Celtic tongues were preserved. Other Saxon
dialects in England have not survived in written form and are not known to
modern scholars. Mercian , a dialect derived from the speech of southern
Angles and spoken chiefly in the kingdom of Mercia, that is, in certain region,
from the Thames to the Humber. Nothumbrian , another Anglian dialect,
spoken from the Humber north to the river Forth. The boundaries between the
dialects were uncertain and probably movable. The dialects passed into one
another imperceptibly and dialectal forms were freely borrowed from one dialect
into another. Throughout this period the dialects enjoyed relative equality;
none of them was the dominant form of speech, each being the main type used
over a limited area. At the time of written OE the dialects had changed from
tribal to regional; they possessed both an oral and a written form and were no
longer equal; in the domain of writing the West Saxon dialect prevailed over
its neighbours.
In the 9 th c. the political and cultural centre moved
to Wessex. Culture and education made great progress there; it is no wonder
that the West Saxon dialect has been preserved in a greater number of texts
than all the other OE dialects put together. Towards the 11 th c. the
written form of the West Saxon dialect developed into a bookish type of
language, which, probably, served as the language of writing for all
English-speaking people.
4. The Scandinavian Invasion and its effect on English
In the 8 th c. raiders from Scandinavia (the Danes) made
their first plundering attacks on England. The struggle of the English against
the Scandinavians lasted over 300 years, in the course of which period more
than half of England was occupied by the invaders and reconquered again. The
Scandinavians subdued Northumbria and East Anglia, ravaged the eastern part of
Mercia, and advanced on Wessex. Like their predecessors, the West Germanic
invaders, the Scandinavians came in large numbers and settled in the new areas.
They founded many towns and villages in northern England; in many regions there
sprang up a mixed population made up of the English and the Danes. Their
linguistic amalgamation was easy, since their tongues belonged to the same
linguistic group. The ultimate effect of the Scandinavian invasions on the
English language became manifest at a later date, in the 12 th -13 th
c., when the Scandinavian element was incorporated in the central English dialects;
but the historical events that led to the linguistic influence date from the 9 th
and 10th c. Under King Alfred of Wessex, by the peace treaty of 878 England was
divided into two halves: the north-eastern half under Danish control called Danelaw
and the south-western half united under the leadership of Wessex. The
reconguest of Danish territories was carried on successfully by Alfred’s
successors but in the late 10 th c. the Danish raids were renewed
again; they reached a new climax in the early 11 th c. headed by
Sweyn and Canute. The attacks were followed by demands for regular payments of
large sums of money. In 1017 Canute was acknowledged as king, and England
became part of great northern empire, comprising Denmark and Norway. On
Canute’s death his kingdom broke up and England regained political
independence; by that time it was a single state divided into six earldoms.
Though the Scandinavian invasions of England are dated in the OE
period, their effect on the language is particularly apparent in ME. The new
settlers and the English intermarried and intermixed; they lived close together
and did not differ either in social rank or in the level of culture and
customs; they intermingled the more easily as there as no linguistic barrier
between them. In the aries of the hearviest settlement the Scandinavians
outnumbered the Anglo-Saxon population, which is attested by geographical
names. Altogether more than 1400 English villages and towns bear names od
Scandinavian origin (with the element thorp meanings «village», e.g. Woodthorp,
Linthorp ; toft ‘a piece of land’, e.g. Brimtoft, Lowestoft and
others). Eventually the Scandinavians were absorbed into the local population
both ethnically and linguistically. They merged with the society around them,
but the impact on the linguistic situation and on the further development of
the English language was quite profound. Due to the contacts and mixture with O
Scand, the Northern dialects (to use OE terms, chiefly Northumbrian and East
Mercian) had acquired lasting and sometimes indelible Scandinavian features. As
the result of the Scandinavian invasion there were some borrowings: fallow,
husband, wrong, to call, to take.
5. The Norman Conquest and its effect on English
The English king, Edward the Confessor, who had been reared in
France, brought over many Norman advisors and favourities; he distributed among
them English lands and wealth to the considerable resentment of the Anglo-Saxon
nobility and appointed them to important positions in the government and church
hierarchy. In many respects Edward paved the way for Norman infiltration long
before the Norman Conquest. However, the government of the country was still in
the hands of Anglo-Saxon feudal lords, headed by the powerful Earl Godwin of
Wessex. In 1066 the elders of England proclaimed Harold Godwin king of England.
As soon as the news reached William of Normandy, he mustered a big army by
promise of land and plunder, and, with the support of the Pope, landed in
Britain. In the battle of Hastings in October 1066, Harold was killed and the
English were defeated. This date is the date of the Norman Conquest. Most of
the lands of the Anglo-Saxon lords passed into the hands of the Norman barons,
William’s own possessions comprising about one third of the country. The
Normans occupied all the important posts in the church, in the government, and
in the army. Hundreds of people from France crossed the Channel to make their
home in Britain. Immigration was easy, since the Norman kings of Britain were
also dukes of Normandy and, about a hundred years later, took possession of the
whole western half of France, thus bringing England into still closer contact
with the continent. French monks, tradesmen and craftsmen flooded the
south-western towns. Much of the middle class was French.
The Norman Conquest was one of the greatest event in the history
of the English language. Its earliest effect was a drastic change in the
linguistic situation. The most immediate consequence of the Norman domination
in Britain is to be seen in the wide use of the French language in many spheres
of life. For almost 300 years French was the official language of
administration. The intellectual life, literature an education were in the
hands of French-speaking people; French, alongside Latin, was the language of
writing. At first 2 languages existed side by side without mingling. Then,
slowly and quietly, they began to permeate each other. The Norman barons and
the French town-dwellers had to pick up English words to make themselves
understood, while the English began to use French words in current speech.
Probably many people became bilingual and had a fair command of both languages.
The struggle between French and English was bound to end in the complete
victory of English. The earliest sign of the official recognition of English by
the Norman kings was the famous PROCLAMATION issued by Henry 3 in 1258 to the
councilors in Parliament. It was written in 3 languages: French, Latin and
English. During this period such changes were in English: there appeared
prepositions and conjunctions, but the grammar was saved unchangeable. Such
words as servant, prince, guard – (connected with life of royal
families) were borrowed. With life of church – chapel, religion, prayer, to
compess; with city life – city, merchant , painter, tailor .
The names of animals were saved, but if their meanings were used as meal – the
Norman’s names were given to them ( beef, pork, veal, mutton ).
6 . ME dialects. ME major written records. G. Chaucer and his
Canterbury Tales
The regional ME dialects had developed from respective OE
dialects. ME dialects can be divided into 2 groups: early ME and late ME
dialects. Early ME dialects are: The Southern group included Kentish and
the South-Western dialects. Kentish was a direct descendant of the OE dialects
known by the same name though it had somewhat extended its area. The
South-Western group was a continuation of the OE Saxon dialects, – not
only West-Saxon, but also East Saxon. The East Saxon dialect was not prominent
in OE but became more important in Early ME, since it made the basis of the
dialect of London in the 12 th and 13 th c. The group of
Midland («Central») dialects – corresponding to the OE Mercian dialect – is
divided into West Midland and East Midland as two main areas, with further
subdivisions within: South-East Midland and North-East Midland, South-West
Midland and North-West Midland. The Northern dialects had developed from
OE Northumbrian. In Early ME the Northern dialects included several provincial
dialects, e.g. the Yorkshire and the Lancashire dialects and also what later
became known as Scottish. In Early ME, while the state language and the main
language of literature was French, the local dialects were relatively equal. In
Late ME, when English had been reestablished as the main language of
administration and writing. The London dialect prevailed over the others. In
the 14 th and 15 th c. there was the same grouping of local
dialects: the Southern group, including Kentish and the South – Western
dialects, the Midland group with its minute subdivisions and the Northern
group. And yet the relations among them were changing. The London dialect
prevailed over the others at that time. The History of the London dialect
reveals the sources of the literary language in Late ME and also the main
source and basis of the Literary Standard, both in its written and spoken
forms. The London dialect became more Anglian than Saxon in character. ME
major written records: the earliest samples of early ME prose are the new
entries made in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles from the year 1122 to the
year 1154, known as the PETERBOROUGH CHRONICLES. The works in the vernacular
were mostly of a religious nature. The great mass of these works are homilies,
sermons in prose and verse, paraphrases from the Bible, psalms and prayers. The
earliest of these religious works, the POEMA MORALE represents the Kentish
dialect of the late 12 th or the early 13 th c. Of
particular interest for the history of the language is ORMULUM, a poem composed
by the monk Orm in about 1200 in the North-East Midland dialect. It consists of
unrhymed paraphrases of the Gospels. The text abounds in Scandinavianisms and
lacks French borrowings. Its most outstanding feature is the spelling system
devised by the author. He doubled the consonants after short vowels in closed
syllables and used special semicircular marks over short vowels in open
syllables. The 13 th c. is famous for POEMA MORALE (Kentish Sermons),
ANCRENE RIWLE (South-western dialect – life of knights), PROCLAMATION of Henry
3 (political poems, London dialect), THE PROSE RULE OF ST BENEDICT (northern
dialect). The 14 th c. is famous for AY ENBITE OF INWIT (Dan Michael,
Kentish dialect), a versified CHRONICLE, SIR GAWAINE AND THE GREEN KNIGHT
(unknown author, SWd), translation of POLYCHRONICON (Hidgen, from latin into
SWd, 7 books on world history, John de Trevisa of Cornwall), Adam Davy’s poems,
Romances of Chivalry, Miracle Plays (midland or east midland dialect);, John
Wyclif – translation of the Bible (London dialect).Most famous works are works
of John Gower (VOX CLAMANTIS is in Latin, CONFESSIO AMANTOS- a composition of
40.000 octo-syllabic lines) and Chaucer. Geoffrey Chaucer (1340–1400) was by
far the most outstanding figure of the time. In many books Chaucer is described
as the founder of the literary language. He was born in London and had the most
varied experience as student, courtier, official, and member of Parliament. His
early works were more or less imitative of other authors – Latin, French or
Italian. He never wrote in any other language than English. The culmination of
Chaucer’s work as a poet is his great unfinished collectin of stories THE
CANTERBURY TALES. Chaucer wrote in a dialect which in the main coincided with
that used in documents produced in London. Although he did not really create
the literary language, as a poet of outstanding talent he made better use of it
than his contemporaries and set up a pattern to be followed in the 15 th
c. Chaucer’s literary language, based on the mixed London dialect is known as
classical ME; in the 15 th and 16 th c. it became the basis
of the national literary English language.
7. The formation of the national English language
The London dialect. The domination of the French language in
England came to an end in the course of the 14th c. The vitory of English was
predeterminated and prepared for by previous events and historical conditions. Towards
the end of the 14 th c. the English language had taken the place of
French as the language of literature and administration. English was once more
the dominant speech of all social classes in all regions. The history of the
London dialect reveals the sources of the literary language in Late ME and also
the main source and basis of the Literary Standard, both in its written and
spoken forms. The Early ME records made in London – beginning with the
PROCLAMATION of 1258 – show that the dialect of London was fundamentally East
Saxon; in terms of the ME division, it belonged to the South-Western dialect
group. Later records indicate that the speech of London was becoming more
mixed, with East Midland features gradually prevailing over the Southern features.
Most of the new arrivals came from the East Midlands; Norfolk, Suffolk, and
other populous and wealthy counties of Medieval England, although not bordering
immediately on the capital. As a result the speech of Londoners was brought
much closer to the East Midland dialect. The official and literary papers
produced in London in the late 14 th c. display obvious East Midland
features. The London dialect became more Anglian than Saxon in character. This
mixed dialect of London, which had extended to the two universities (in Oxford
and Cambridge) ousted French from official spheres and from the sphere writing.
8. The Germanic languages in the modern world, their
classification. Their common ancestor
Languages may be classified according to different principles. The
historical, or genealogical classification, groups languages in accordance with
their origin from a common linguistic ancestor. Genetically, English belongs to
the Germanic or Teutonic group of languages, which is one of the 12 groups of
the IE linguistic family. The Germanic language in the modern world are as
follows: 1. English – in Great Britain, Ireland, the USA, Canada,
Australia, New Zeland, the South African Republic, and many other former
British colonies and dominations, (dialects of the Angles, part of the Saxon
and Frisians, and probably Jutes develop into the English, WG) wr 7c,; 2. German
– in the Germany, Austria, Luxemburg, Liechtenstein, part of Switzerland, Old
High German group dialects (Saxon, the Alemanians, Bavarians, and Thuringians)
mixed with Middle and High Franconian, wr 16 c. 10 million; 3. Netherlandi
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