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To use our site, we recommend using the latest versions of Chrome, Firefox, Safari or Edge. These variations could be anything from local law and customs, to vehicle types, road conditions and traffic signs. Your holiday is your time to relax and enjoy, however, wherever you are in the world, there are some things that you should remember to keep yourself and your possessions safe. Remember that alcohol and drug use not only increases any risk of accidents and injuries, but can also invalidate travel insurance claims you may need to make. You should also never share or exchange your drinks with anyone. Keep your drink with you at all times or nominate a friend or family member you're on holiday with with to keep an eye on your drinks. Remember, alcohol will dehydrate you. Recreational drugs are likely to be illegal in your destination, and law enforcement for drug use and possession can be severe. The quality of local spirits varies greatly, so where possible, try and buy well-known brands. When taking a licenced taxi, please agree the price for your destination before you set off. A holiday may present opportunities to try or take part in a number of different fun, exciting and enriching experiences. These can range from a horse drawn carriage ride through the city at night to food and wine tours, from water sports to gorge walking. Different activities carry different levels of risk with them, here are some things to remember before you buy an experience. You can book a huge range of exciting tours and experiences through our partner Musement. Your tours and experiences won't automatically change or cancel, and the easyJet holidays customer team won't be able to assist with this. Find out more about how to do this here. If you wish to book independently whilst on holiday, please know that you do this at your own risk. Your browser is not supported To use our site, we recommend using the latest versions of Chrome, Firefox, Safari or Edge. Safety and wellbeing centre Out and about. Out and about. Staying safe while exploring the sights We want you to let your hair down, relax and enjoy the local delights. However, things may work a little differently at the destinations you may be travelling to, so its good to think about how you can do things safely in an unfamiliar environment. Driving on holiday ChevronDown. Important points to remember when driving: Familiarise yourself with the rules. You must be comfortable with being able to make the excess payment in the event of damage Check the rules on fuel, and whether you get a full tank to start and how you need to return the vehicle We recommend that you take a picture or video of the all-around and underneath of the vehicle before driving away Always wear a seatbelt and never drink and drive Always carry emergency and breakdown telephone numbers Important things to remember as a pedestrian: Be aware that in some countries traffic isn't required to stop at pedestrian crossings When walking on unpaved or unlit roads during the hours of darkness, use a torch Never walk alone at night. Quad bikes and mopeds ChevronDown. Due to the risks involved and the number of serious injuries to tourists each year, we strongly advise against the rental and use of quad bikes, motorbikes or mopeds. Personal safety ChevronDown. Keep valuables close to you at all times. Avoid any areas that are poorly lit and always try and walk in pairs or groups. Put your hotel name and address in your phone when you first arrive. Avoid confrontational situations and any large gatherings of people, such as demonstrations and protests. Use licensed taxis, and never accept a lift from an unlicensed taxi or a stranger. In any busy venues, take time to check for fire exits and follow all emergency instructions in the event of an incident. If you feel threatened by anyone, stay calm and try to be firm and direct with them. Make others aware that you feel threatened, even by shouting if needed. If you're the victim of a crime, report the matter to the local authorities and call our team. Alcohol and drugs ChevronDown. Taxis and minicabs ChevronDown. Tours and experiences ChevronDown. Go to established tours and experiences providers at the hotel or at your destination Read reviews on the providers and the experiences they offer Only choose experiences that are suitable for everyone that will be taking part Don't exceed your physical capabilities Recognise that there's a higher risk with motorised experiences, such as mopeds and quad bikes. And remember it's not something we'd advise. If you're going to participate, particular care should be taken and check any vehicle before you use it. Always wear helmets or personal protective equipment where provided Cliff jumping is dangerous, whether organised or not Make sure your travel insurance covers the experience You can book a huge range of exciting tours and experiences through our partner Musement.

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Hammamet buying MDMA pills

Not a MyNAP member yet? Register for a free account to start saving and receiving special member only perks. Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. But its most rudimentary applications are in fermentation that is, the use of microorganisms such as molds and bacteria to produce food products. This application is as old as the history of human civiliza- tion. Fermentation technology originated in ancient China, where foods were fermented by molds, and in Egypt, where beer brewing and bread-making were combined enterprises. The unique characteristics of microorganisms have only begun to be ex- ploited to improve life on this planet, taking into account, of course, the role of microorganisms in the cycling of nutrients and in global climatic processes. But the new methods and technologies are only emerging from old ones. For ex And even before the science of genetics was understood, new varieties of crops and animals were being bred by selection for desired qualities. Some milestones in the history of science indicate the source of this new technology. In the field of medicine, Edward Jenner, who in the last decade of the eighteenth century observed that milkmaids did not succumb to smallpox, began inoculation with cowpox, or Vaccinia virus, to prevent smallpox infec- tion. About the same time, Louis Pasteur, best known for his work that led to the process of pasteurization and the identification of microorganisms as causative agents of disease, studied fermentation in wine and wrote an important book on winemaking. And around the turn of the century, German bacteriologist and physician Robert Koch identified microorganisms as the causes of anthrax and tuberculosis. The first industrial use of a pure culture of a bacterium was accomplished by Chaim Weizmann in when he developed the fermentation of cornstarch by the bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum, thereby producing acetone for explo- sives manufacture. Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk whose studies on the pea plant elucidated inheritance of traits via hereditary factors, conducted seminal work in genetics in Although Mendel's work was ignored until , his findings, once rediscovered, fit well with what was by then known about chromo- somal activity during cell division, or mitosis. The first half of the twentieth century was an exciting time, with major gains in knowledge of genetic inherit- ance. Thomas Hunt Morgan of Columbia University, working with the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, showed that genes, or the units of heredity, were the constructs of chromosomes. His student A. Sturtevant, who later joined him when he moved to the California Institute of Technology, made a number of breakthrough discoveries showing genes were linked, comprising chromosomes. In the s and s, genetics research was moving inexorably in the direction of the upcoming explosion of knowledge at the molecular level. Meanwhile, research on what comprised genetic material moved forward rapidly. In , Frederick Griffith had found that a 'transforming principle' was able to alter traits in the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. Finally, in , James Watson and Francis Crick's short paper described the breakthrough for which everyone was waiting. Supreme Court ruledin Diamond v. The following year, the first recombinant DNA pharmaceutical, Genentech's Humulin recombinant human insulin , was approved for sale in the United States and Great Britain. The same year, the first recombinant animal vaccine for colibacillosis was approved. Although most biotechnology companies are still not consistently profitable, more and more products are entering the market. One new product in another area was Calgene's Flavr Savr tomato, engineered for better taste and shipping tolerance through the addi- tion of a 'backwards' gene that induces the tomato to produce only small amounts of the ripening enzyme, polygalacturonase. Thus the tomato can be picked before ripening and left to ripen slowly without adding artificial ripeners. In , U. By comparison, the U. Poor economic markets and policy questions in the United States held down the number of companies formed in , but instead of being in a downturn, the U. And instead of being aggressively entrepre- neurial, with the intention of becoming the next Merck, the newly emerging companies may well serve in the future as a reservoir of corporate research for large pharmaceutical firms, which, in turn, will develop and market the output. Today, however, because most of the U. Smaller companies are merging; large companies, such as the major pharmaceutical companies, are acquiring smaller biotechnology ventures; and, because there is little money available in the investment market for corporate growth, companies are looking to strategic alliances, both in the United States and abroad, to shore up finances and financial opportunities. This develop- ment may prove beneficial for Asian pharmaceutical or biotechnology companies looking for products in return for allowing access to the Asian market. But many of the developing countnes, lacking homegrown pharmaceutical giants, will have to look elsewhere for role models for their own fledgling biotechnology indus- tries. The United States is not the sole benefactor of biotechnology growth. A handful of companies are 20 15 c' a Approximately biotechnology companies are located in Australia and an additional 40 in New Zealand. Swaminathan Research Foundation in Madras is a leader in the promotion of biotechnology at the village level in India. Other prominent bio- technology research institutes in India are New Delhi's Energy Research Institute and a national institute of cellular and molecular biology in Hyderabad. Of the many biotechnology-related research departments and institutes in the People's Republic of China, one of the oldest and best known is the Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry. Aquaculture is a major theme of other biotechnol- ogy research centers and university departments in Thailand. Worldwide, many national and international organizations maintain labora- tories that carry out research in biotechnology, mostly related to agriculture. Another is the Biotechnology Centre for Animal and Plant Health, established by the Euro- pean Union, in partnership with the Queen's University of Northern Ireland in Belfast, which focuses primarily on disease control. Agricultural biotechnology also represents a growing segment of the indus- try: 8 percent in the United States, 20 percent in Europe, and 28 percent in Canada. The U. Biomedical Medical biotechnology mainly includes recombinant drugs and enzyme-me- diated diagnostic kits, but the rational design of drugs, where a drug is modeled to fit a particular molecule, yielding a limited response that can result in control of the disease process, has become a significant part of this field. By learning more about the basic biochemistry of normal and abnormal cellular function, scientists eventually will produce drugs that will prevent the abnormal growth of cancer cells, or will permit detection of the abnormalities in the DNA that signal the onset of cancerous changes, thereby preventing cancer from occurring. Another intent is to circumvent the immune response to one's own tissue that occurs in such autoimmune diseases as multiple sclerosis and lupus erythematosus. Thus biotech- nology and pharmaceutical companies legitimately have high hopes for the eco- nomic and medical potential of the next generation of drugs. Among the most successful of the antibody-based diagnostics are pregnancy test kits, which now are so simple that in the United States they can be purchased over the counter and used at home. Human immunodeficiency virus HIV test kits are being sold worldwide and are manufactured in many parts of the world. As test kits become both more accurate and easier to use, test kit manufacturers foresee wide applicability, even in rural settings, by techni- cians with minimal training. Some companies, for example, have sent personnel to China and South America to train technicians in the proper use of their test kits. Monoclonal antibodies were expected to become major tools for the treat- ment of a variety of diseases, but recent problems with monoclonal antibody- based septic shock treatments caused several companies such as Xoma, Centocor, Chiron, and Synergen to abandon drugs in clinical trials. Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine already is used worldwide. Although an HIV vaccine would have enormous use, especially in those countries where HIV is widespread, little success has been achieved and not much is on the horizon, at least at present. Research on HIV vaccines that would be beneficial to those people outside the developed nations, who suffer from a different strain of HIV than that found in the United States and western Europe, is not being pursued aggressively. In gene therapy, which cur- rently is employed for research purposes only, a normal gene is put into abnormal cells using a carrier such as a virus. In 'cellular therapy' a patient's cells are treated. An example of this is autologous bone marrow transplants, where a patient's bone marrow is removed, cleansed of cancer cells if they are present, grown in tissue culture, then reinfected into the patient who usually has an advanced cancer after the patient undergoes therapy to destroy the remaining bone marrow. Because such techniques are prohibitively expensive, they are used sparingly. Gene therapy requires high-technology medical centers and a high level of training for all staff members involved in patient care. Clearly, even in developed nations these treatments are available only to the very wealthy, the very well insured, or enrollees in sponsored clinical trials. Agriculture Agricultural biotechnology is expected to become the predominant applica- tion of biotechnology in developing countries. In Africa,42 Asia, Central and South America,43 and the Middle East,44 development of transgenic plants, biological pest control, tissue culture techniques for agriculture, microbial prod- ucts for nutrient cycling, pathogen diagnostics for crops, and genetic mapping of tropical crops are major concerns. In developed nations, the term value added is used to denote the economic value of agricultural biotechnology products. Thus agricultural biotechnology in the United States, Canada, Europe, Japan, and Aus- tralia aims to produce products, such as fruit, vegetables and grains, whose ge- netic manipulation will provide new products that will cost more or bring greater profit to commercial entities than the standard hybrid product. Today in the United States the best-known commercial agricultural biotechnology products include Calgene's Flavr Savr tomato; Monsanto's recombinant bovine somato- trophin B ST or growth hormone, which yields increased milk production by cows; frost-resistant strawberries; and biological pest control, which may include the introduction of genes from Bacillus thuringiensis and other bacteria, fungi, or viruses into plants, rendering the plants pest-resistant,45 and the production of biopesticides via gene isolation and fermentation. Less well known is the produc- tion of recombinant rennin, an enzyme used in cheese manufacture, approved by FDA in In the case of the Flavr Savr tomato, transportability is improved, an important factor in areas where fruits and vegetables must be transported long distances to market. Since the developed nations such as the United States are dependent on Central and South American countries for fruits, especially during winter and early spring, before the harvests in Florida and California, these technologies could increase. Moreover, the introduction of foreign DNA could improve the protein quality of some foods, an important consideration for developing countries not only for human foods but also for animal feeds. Re- searchers also are working on improving the nutritional qualities of food starches and oils. Biological pest control, a technique used in Asia for several millennia, has made great strides since the United States began to import B. Other means of biological pest con- trol include virus resistance incorporated into the plant genome. Scientists in Costa Rica are working to introduce virus-resistant genes into the criollo melon. An important field in agricultural biotechnology will be the use of marker or 'reporter' genes within transgenic species. Recently, researchers at the U. Department of Agriculture and University of Wisconsin inserted a gene for green fluorescent protein, derived from the jellyfish, Aequorea Victoria, into orange tree cells. Much of the improvement in crops depends on improved plant tissue culture techniques and techniques for plant micropropagation. In tissue culture, indi- vidual cells are separated, genetically modified for desirable traits, and grown on nutrient media. Hormonal growth enhancers, nutrients some of which are pro- duced by tissue culture , and other additives determine the viability of the cells maintained in culture. In micropropagation, tiny plantlets are grown from cells started in tissue culture, all genetically the same, for distribution to farmers. Agricultural production can be increased not only by direct manipulation of plants, but also by the addition of naturally occurring or genetically manipulated microorganisms. Agricultural products do not necessarily result in food products for the con- sumer market. Better plastics and biodegradable disposable items may be pro- duced from plant extracts or refuse. Plant refuse, such as corn husks and stalks, also can be used to produce alcohols and other fuels such as ethanol. Finally, plants and animals can be genetically engineered to produce drugs and other biologically active molecules. In fact, the entire tobacco program of the USDA is. Not to be forgotten, plants, like humans, become diseased. Thus it is essen- tial that simple diagnostic tests be developed for early detection of disease. Marine Biotechnology Marine biotechnology, which represents a small segment of the biotechnol- ogy industry in the United States, approximately 85 companies or about 7 percent of all biotechnology companies has applications in medicine, agricul- ture, materials science, natural products chemistry, and bioremediation. Because of the proximity of most of the world's tropical nations to the oceans, as well as their climates, these nations are particularly well suited to pursue marine biotech- nology. Aquaculture, a branch of marine biotechnology, is closely related to agricul- ture and is often included under that classification. USDA has predicted that biotechnology will aid in the improvement of captive management and reproduction of species, leading to more efficient species that make better use of food supplies and the production of healthier organisms with improved food and nutritional qualities. Furthermore, aquaculture can produce organisms for use as biomedical models in research, reservoirs for bioactive molecule production, and agents useful in bioremediation. Aquaculture is no longer a means of producing luxury foods, such as lobsters; it is a critical solution to the world's fisheries problems. Algal aquaculture, an ancient art in Asia, produces not only seaweeds, but also food supplements, such as the omega-3 fatty acids and beta carotene, through microalgal cultivation. Animal Husbandry One of the first approved biotechnology products offered on the market was an rDNA vaccine against colibacillosis. Thus animal husbandry was among the first sectors into which a commercial biotechnology product was introduced. Transgenic animals, such as pigs and cows, can be engineered for traits allowing better survival in marginal habitats, the production of more meat of higher qual- ity, or even the production of recombinant pharmaceutical molecules for the human health care market. Cows other than the genetic mothers can then carry the offspring. Biotechnology also can improve the health of these animals with new vaccines and diagnostic methods,S9 leading to increased trade in meat, animal products, and live animals trade now is often restricted because of fears of spread of disease. Because the United States is concerned about importation of this disease from Asia, the market for the vaccine may be significant. Single-Cell Protein The production of single-cell protein SCP a mass of microorganisms along with their nutrient contents for both animal feed and human food has at least a year history. Initially, hydrocarbons were used as source material for the nutrients, but higher prices for petroleum rendered SCP non-cost-effective, thereby slowing research on SCP over the past two decades. Bacteria and yeasts have been used to ferment petroleum products, methanol, methane gas, lignocel- lulose, spent sulfite liquor byproducts of paper mills, molasses, whey, and other industrial fermentation byproducts. Increased efficiency, however, will be neces- sary before such processes are viable economically. Environmental Biotechnology Bioremediation represents a large market force in biotechnology, but its potential has only recently been recognized. For example, U. In , 10 percent of Canada's biotech- nology companies were working in environment-related areas waste manage- ment, biomass, remediation and recycling, and materials reuse. Current practice includes altering the environment of the naturally occurring micro- organisms to make them work more efficiently; 'bioaugmentation,' which, in general, involves the addition of nutrients, most commonly nitrogen and phospho- rus; and controlling the oxygen and water contact. Other contaminants, however, are more recalcitrant. Some of the aromatic compounds, polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs , and other substances can be removed using genetically engi- neered microorganisms GEMs , modified to degrade the target substance or to function in a particular type of environment. The Exxon Valdez oil spill cleanup provided a valuable case study in bio- remediation. The application of oleophilic fertilizer resulted in enhancement of biodegradation through enrichment of those microorganisms that degrade oil,73 although some questions remain about the efficacy of this technique. Many biological methods have been proposed for treatment of contaminated sites. For example, one method familiar to many backyard gardeners, home- owners, and farmers is comporting, where bacteria and fungi decompose organic material; another is treating polluted soils in the presence of oxygen. Monitoring equipment may have to be brought on-site to establish efficacy and to provide a means of controlling degradation events. In phytoremediation, heavy metals are removed from contaminated soils by plants that take up the metals and concentrate them. The plants then can be burned, both to recycle the metals by producing ores and to produce electricity. Ex situ remediation is carried out in a bioreactor or filtration system, some- times in a processing plant or other facility but not necessarily on-site. One interesting combination of in situ and ex situ bioremediation is the use of Sea Sweep, an absorbent composed of a treated material made from wood chips. After its use in cleaning oil spills, the material is gathered up and degraded by composting. Many methods exist, including bioreactors and biofiltration. The biological treatment of raw sewage is widely employed and is an ex- ample of how environmental cleanup can result in improved public health. The next step, which municipalities and cities throughout the world face, is what to do with the sludge that remains, as well as solid wastes garbage. In some commu- nities, sludge is sold for conversion to fertilizer. In situ treatments consist of the use of microorganisms and localized bioreactors; ex situ treatments are carried out in wastewater treatment plants. Microorganisms are being modified for use in waste- water treatment, and new methods such as immobilization of microorganisms- are being developed to achieve increased microorganism contact with the bio- mass. Anaerobic wastewater treatment employing methanogenic bacteria that produce methane as a byproduct83 may be especially useful where an affordable supply of energy, the methane gas, is needed. The environmental test kit market is growing as kits become smaller and easier to use and portable field testing equipment, such as ion chromatographs, becomes available. Thus environmental monitoring can be carried out, with the use of sensors, on a continuous basis. A town in the Czech Republic, for example, has attached sensors to an illuminated scoreboard that gives continual readings of air pollutants. The environmental bio- technology company Envirogen is studying organisms for bioremediation of air contaminated with halogenated hydrocarbons. For example, Brazil's waterways are polluted with mercury as a result of gold mining. In northern Russia, within the Arctic Circle and near its border with Finland, as much as 2, km2 of forest were destroyed by the sulfurous byproducts of nickel mining. Silviculture and the Role of Forests The world's forests are being destroyed at a frighteningly rapid pace, the swiftest in history. Mature tropical forests, which are estimated to have covered. Although most of this in- come is from the paper and pulp industry, bioremediation of effluent and the addition of bacteria to the paper-making process to decrease toxic effluent and improve paper quality are important research goals. Canadian researchers also are working on trees produced via tissue culture to aid in forest restoration. Investigators in Europe, Canada, and the United States have found that invading forest weeds capable of destroying native forest understory or preventing growth of young trees can be controlled by mycoherbicides. Increased atmospheric carbon results in increased growth of temperate and boreal forests. Thus it has been suggested atmospheric carbon be decreased by reducing the use of fossil fuels and increasing the use of biomass-based fuels that release little or no carbon dioxide. Another suggestion is that massive, managed tree plantations be established. Studies to determine the effects of increased carbon dioxide are under way, and researchers are study- ing microorganisms associated with forest trees to devise new methods of alter- ing carbon partitioning. These plants have added potential as biofuel and to remediate toxic wastewater. Marine biotechnology can be applied in many areas outside those related to food production. Enzymes isolated from thermophilic Archaea, micro- organisms originally thought to be bacteria, some of which live in deepsea hydrothermal vents, are essential to molecular geneticists doing DNA sequenc- ing. Agar, an important ingredient in nutrient substrates for growth of microor- ganisms in culture, and agarose, used to make gels for biochemical genetics and protein studies, are derived from algae. The marine bacterium Acinetobacter calcoaceticus RAG-1 emulsifies hydro- carbons. Metal-concentrating marine bacteria also have been identified and may prove useful in marine bioremediation. The strength of adhesives produced by such marine organisms as mussels and barnacles has been recognized, and with the advent of modern biomolecular techniques scientists have been able to study and duplicate some of these materials. Some of the most potent natural toxins. These toxins could be used in research applications, such as studies of the neuromuscular junction, where much of their toxic activity is concentrated. They also could yield potent anti- neoplastic drugs. All these possibilities confirm that monitoring of the marine environment may yield clues about environmental degradation and that studies of marine ecology, including the problem of pollution of shorelines by bacterial pathogens, will provide improved human health. Energy Production Although a relatively minor consideration for developed nations at this time, energy production from biological waste products will prove important in the future, at first for developing nations, and later for those countries that no longer can afford to depend on petroleum products. A variety of hexose sugars can be used for the fermentation production of ethanol, but major sources are sugarcane, maize, wood, cassava, sorghum, Jerusalem artichoke, and grains. Waste whey also may be used. Bioconversion processes yield such byproducts as single-cell protein and enzymes for biocatalysis. They also could be used to detect chemical, toxic, and biological warfare CTBW agents. The military could use biomaterials as protective clothing against CTBW agents, or as medical materials such as artificial bone and other tissue, or even as agents of warfare, causing engine malfunctions in enemy vehicles. Safety and Public Acceptance of Genetically Engineered Products Monsanto's recombinant bovine somatotrophin, a drug expected to increase the milk production of a herd of cows by approximately percent, received FDA approval in , but a campaign against its use began long before BST was approved. Concerns were expressed that people who drank milk produced by BST-treated cows would be affected by the hormone and that these cows would be more likely to develop an infectious mastitis, requiring antibiotic treatment and thereby adding antibiotics to the milk supply. Public acceptance of the products of genetic engineering is a major obstacle to be overcome. For example, some chefs in the United States have banded together to boycott the Flavr Savr tomato, and there have been requests that milk from BST-treated cows be labeled as such, or, conversely, that milk from cows not treated with BST be so labeled, although FDA discourages such labeling. It is hoped that public education will allay some of these fears. Because many of these countries depend on their own agriculture to feed their populace, their major biotechnological thrust is likely to be in agricultural improvements. Food crops that are better sources of nutrients, have greater yields, are more tolerant of extreme conditions, and resist disease are likely to have major effects on the food-growing regions of the world, especially in the developing countries. Simple methods to improve plant growth, such as the application of biofertilizers to crops, may require little in the way of technology and would be easy to implement. In India, for example, the introduction of earthworms and their cast- ings excrement to degraded lands, along with other biofertilizers, has recovered land for agriculture. Biological pest control, employing deterrent sprays pro- duced by GMOs into which genes that code for production of natural pesticides have been cloned from plants, bacteria, or fungi, uses a technique spraying- with which farmers are well acquainted. Disease-resistant animals, animals that can survive harsher conditions, and animals that are more efficient utilizers of feed also could have an important effect on world agriculture. Training in tissue culture and micropropagation techniques may aid in the establishment or expansion of a locally based industry. For example, the Cycad Specialist Group of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natu- ral Resources IUCN has suggested that local people be encouraged to raise cycads for sale from seeds or vegetative propagation in order to protect endan- gered plants from exploitation by commercial collectors, who pay little. Training programs in tissue culture and micropropagation techniques are being carried out in Costa Rica and also would be beneficial to the Colombian cut-flower industry. The products of medical biotechnology are most likely to be of immediate benefit to developing nations, especially vaccines against the major scourges of the less-developed world such as malaria, hepatitis, dengue fever, HIV, and tu- berculosisii9; the diagnostics and drugs needed to treat endemic diseases and highly infectious diseases; and the drugs and technologies that will have the widest range of applicability to increase the health of the populace. Although specialized drugs may not be major commodities in the developing nations at this time, some biotechnology firms are nevertheless optimistic. For example, Amgen's Neupogen, which is used to treat neutropenia associated with cancer chemotherapy or bone marrow transplantation prohibitively expensive thera- pies is now distributed in China. Neupogen has been approved for use in some countries for severe anemias. Epogen, human recombinant erythropoietin, is used to stimulate red blood cell production, especially in kidney dialysis patients. Many developing countries, as well as the former Eastern European bloc, have serious environmental problems that are highly amenable to bio- remediation. Poland's Vistula River is so polluted that its waters cannot be used at all. Approximately 80 percent of water samples tested from river systems in the former Soviet Union showed bacterial and viral contamination levels so high that they were a threat to public health. Asian rivers-even those in developed countries such as Taiwan are among the worst in the world, containing raw sewage and industrial wastes that compromise public health and threaten entire ecosystems. Nevertheless, in many developing nations environmental cleanup has a lower priority than feeding and protecting the health of the population at large. Countries have pledged aid to the Eastern European countries, but it has not been forthcoming. Barker, however, cautions that any protective tariffs levied by these countries may induce other countries to seek substitutes for products exported by developing countries. For example, high-fructose corn sweetener, a product of the fermentation of maize, accounts for 50 percent of the U. Furthermore, substitutes for other tropical products may become available in a trade atmo- sphere that discriminates against imports from developing nations. For example, according to the Rural Advancement Foundation International RAFI , the United States is the world's largest importer of pyrethrum, a natural insecticide from the dried heads of the chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium. Kenya is the world's largest pyrethrum producer; other sources are Tanzania, Ecuador, Rwanda, and Tasmania, located off the coast of Australia. For example, a National Research Council advisory panel suggested modernization of the pro- duction of traditionally fermented foods at the village level, using affordable technology. Although they may have the work force some of whom may be well trained-expensive equipment, reagents, and process control are beyond their economic means. Thus it may be preferable that organisms to be used in developing nations be researched in the more affluent countries, but manufactured grown or maintained in the developing countries so that they can reap the benefit of these organisms. China and India and some funded research laboratories in Africa and other parts of Asia have the trained personnel and, in some cases, the necessary equipment. In such instances, the research groups, with additional support in the form of equipment and supplies, could carry out the molecular biology research needed to produce GMOs or related products. Except for technologies requiring only traditional skills, such as those needed to plant seeds, use of most of the new technologies will require upgrading skills of local people and extensive public education to inform the populace about the technologies. Thus the introduction of value-added, high-technology products must include educational programs. Property Rights and Biological Prospecting There are fears, often well founded, within the chemical and biotechnology industries that their patented materials will not be protected in developing na- tions. Some compounds, although not yet characterized fully, are familiar in the local lore of indigenous people. But how do the more affluent nations, which tend to be in temperate climates, gain access to these riches? This question is being debated worldwide, and recent agreements, such as the one between Merck and INBio for extraction from plant material in Costa Rica, have come under criticism. How are government entities compensated, if such compensation is deemed appropriate? Some indigenous peoples who share their knowledge of native medicine with. A recent review of patent law, however, concluded that this information cannot be protected by patents. Some of these issues were addressed at the Convention on Biological Diversity also known as the Rio Convention , but they were not spelled out clearly and none of the current agreements fully address them. Recently, a group of interna- tional Pew Charitable Trust scholars met to write ethical guidelines for bio- accessing that cover the behavior of and interactions with scientists, gene banks, and intergovernmental organizations. The guidelines propose that scientists treat indigenous peoples with respect, have local people serve as co-researchers, and ensure that the local communities receive equitable compensation for any prod- ucts derived from locally collected and documented plant, microorganism, or animal-derived resources. Such guidelines will be effective only if there is a way to enforce agreements. Although the Pew scholars may ask professional organizations to enforce member compliance, they also will append guidelines to an enforceable interna- tional treaty such as the Rio Convention. Janzen et al. The herbarium director, believing quite rightly that the university was taking advantage of his institution's impoverished condition, asked for a cooperative agreement between his institution, local uni- versities, and the organization that requested the plant material, as well as some control over the material. The university was never heard from again and the. Although guidelines cannot cover all situations one scholar involved in drafting the Pew guidelines admitted they do not cover his research situation they may aid in reaching fair and equitable agreements. The Brazilian government is now considering an industrial property bill that could be used as a model for determining compensatory agreements between the accessors and the sources of biodiversity. For example, the United States is one of the major forces for worldwide conservation, but it is not yet an official signatory of the convention. President Bill Clinton, without congressional approval, signed the treaty but with interpretative statements on Articles 16 technology transfer and 19 biosafety protocols. Safety and Ethical Issues Although problems are associated with the public's perception of the safety of GMOs, i42 numerous field trials have been carried out worldwide, t43 and since field tests of more than transgenic crops have been approved in the United States; at least another tests have been approved in Europe since Perhaps a new international nongovernmental commission on GMOs could aid countries that need assistance in formulating regulations and evaluate projects being considered for implementation within their borders. There is concern that biotechnology-based products may lead to pressure on consumers to purchase value-added products they may not need. The Rural Ad- vancement Foundation International worries that the addition of genetically engi- neered human proteins, produced by transgenic cows, into infant formula may lead the infant formula industry to undertake aggressive marketing techniques, especially in developing countries. Clinical trial requirements are more complex in some countries than in others, and review may be shorter in some countries, allowing a drug to enter the marketplace in Europe, for example, earlier than in the United States. For example, in the recent bubonic and pneumonic plague epidemics in. An effective vaccine against pneu- monic and bubonic plague had been manufactured in the United States by Cutter Laboratories, but in Cutter sold the rights to the vaccine to another com- pany. Because FDA regulations required that the vaccine be treated as a new product and undergo testing, it was not available when urgently needed. Compa- nies may opt for testing a product in a country with fewer controls. For example, because the U. National Institutes of Health are delaying tests of a HIV vaccine that many fear will not be effective, the manufacturers are considering carrying out trials in Thailand. If, for example, difficulties are encountered in delivering agricultural products to market, no change in the qualities of those products will overcome the infrastructural problems. In other words, there is no reason to introduce geneti- cally engineered apples that ship better in a region where the apples rot on the trees because they cannot be shipped to market. Introducing a complicated test kit for clinical use by marginally trained employees will not yield the expected public health benefits, especially if requirements such as a 'cold chain' are involved. A recent attempt to introduce clinical test kit panels into China failed because the enzyme-linked immunoassay ELISA tests, although relatively simple to use by U. When introducing new crops, one must be able to distribute the starter mate- rial and explain to the farmers how best to plant and grow the crops. The introduction of sophisticated technology into an area where the supply of electricity is erratic will not lead to progress unless changes are made in the way electricity is supplied. Moreover, complicated regulations or corrupt governments can inhibit the flow of new technologies. For example, recently an act of the Romanian parliament was re- quired to import a biotechnology product needed by a local area. And the INBio-Merck agreement is successful in part because the Costa Rican government is not corrupt, but many governments foster corruption or look the other way. What will work? The list ranged from the development of restriction fragment length poly- morphism RFLP maps of such plants as sorghum, cowpea, and potato, to tree tissue culture and studies of the role of-biotechnology in plant agriculture. Integrated pest management, a form of the 'old' biotechnology well known in some of the developing nations, could be expanded. Marine biotechnology, including aquaculture of fish, algae, and microalgae, is a genuinely viable area for wide application in developing nations, especially in light of the severe overfishing that is occurring today. Many countries, espe- cially those in the Pacific Rim, already have some expertise in this area, and in others expertise could be developed with the appropriate training. Marine bio- technology programs and aquaculture not only will provide food for the table, but also can develop products from natural resources. Vaccines and pharmaceuticals that improve public health and decrease infant mortality, as well as test kits that permit screening of large proportions of at-risk populations for transmissible, even hereditary, disease will be welcomed into the markets of developing nations. In fact, nations should be encouraged to form the infrastructure necessary to develop their own vaccines, especially 'orphan vac- cines' for tropical diseases specific to their country. Thailand, for example, is developing its own vaccine production capability. Programs for alternative energy sources, especially for countries that are dependent on imported fossil fuels, should be encouraged. Methane gas produc- tion, as well as the production of bioethanol and other fuels, may be an economi- cally advantageous means of augmenting the use of fossil fuels, hydroelectricity, and nuclear power. Environmental bioremediation can be used to introduce or upgrade public sanitation, clean polluted soil and water, and clean up toxic environments. Finally, the development of databases, especially related to depositories of biological material, also may be important projects for international cooperation. The establishment and use of germplasm banks not only will help to preserve biodiversity but also will save food resources for future use. International organizations such as the World Bank. The technologies are ready for exploitation; it is the financing and the will to put these technologies into place that are needed. Myrna Watanabe in preparation of this manuscript is gratefully acknowledged. NOTES 1. Vivian Moses and Ronald E. Cape, eds. Lily E. Avery, C. MacLeod, and M. Watson and F. Cohen et al. Congress, OTA, Biotechnology. Kenneth B. Lee, Jr. Unless otherwise noted, amounts are given in U. Lee and Burrill, 'Biotech Peter J. Pieter Lucas et al. Anonymous, 'World Biology Center,' Science : Dean H. Cohen, 'Bumps on the Vaccine Road. Regina Rabinovich et al. Jack R. Coulson et al. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. Mulongoy et al. Issuesfor Developing Countries, ed. DaSilva, C. Rutledge, and A. Sasson Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, , Raymond A. Zilinskas et al. Hamdan and J. Washington, D. David T. Gibson and Gary S. Going and Winter, 'Canadian Biotech Lucas et al. Ronald M. Morris A. Levin and Michael A. Daryl F. Casper and J. Steven D. Barr and Steven D. Gealt, 'Overview of Biotreatment Practices and Promises,'. Roberts et al. Piero M. Simons, 'East Europe. London: HarperPerennial, Scheepens, and J. Robin Lambert Graham, Monica G. Turner, and Virginia H. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, Ore. Rosillo-Calle et al. Department of Energy, Washington, D. Watanabe, 'Molecular Motors,' Scientist 7 : David M. Rissler and Mellon, Perils. Casper and Landsmann, Proceedings. Dennis W. Stevenson, 'Cycad Specialist Group,' Species : Nussenzweig and Carole A. Musing, speech to New York Biotechnology Association. David E. Thottappilly et al. Josephine R. Axt et al. Lyle Glowka et al. Environmental Policy and Law Paper No. Daniel H. Walter V. Reid et al. Putterman, Trade and the Biodiversity Convention,' Nature : Sarah A. Laird, 'Contracts for Biodiversity Prospecting,' in Reid et al. Mooney and Giorgio Bernardi, eds. Introduction of Genetically Modified Organisms into the Environment. Sussman et al. Agbiotech Field Trials,' BiolTechnology 12 : Roderick C. Rene V. Daniel M. Department of Agriculture 7 : 2. Recent technological advances, particularly in microelectronics and telecommunications, biotechnology, and advanced materials, pose critical challenges and opportunities for developing countries, and for the development banks and other organizations that serve them. Those countries that fail to adapt to the transformations driven by new technologies in industry, agriculture, health, environment, energy, education, and other sectors may find it difficult to avoid falling behind. This book represents a joint effort by the World Bank and the National Research Council to survey the status and effect of technology change in key sectors and to recommend action by the development organizations, government, private sector and the scientific and technological community. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website. Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book. To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter. Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available. Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released. Get This Book. Unfortunately, this book can't be printed from the OpenBook. If you need to print pages from this book, we recommend downloading it as a PDF. Visit NAP. Looking for other ways to read this? No thanks. Marshaling Technology for Development: Proceedings of a Symposium. Page 98 Share Cite. Page 99 Share Cite. Page Share Cite. For ex 97 98 Marshaling Technology for Development ample, by the end of the eighteenth century, farmers had learned to rotate crops in order to plant crops that restored nutrients to nutrient-poor soil. The Marshaling Technology for Development hope also is to use small molecules to combat degenerative neurological diseases or to induce neurological cell regrowth in such conditions as Alzheimer's dis- ease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, head and spinal injury, and cerebrovascular accident or stroke. Since the developed nations such as the United States are dependent on Central and South American countries for fruits, especially during winter and early spring, before the harvests in Florida and California, these technologies could increase Marshaling Technology for Development the marketability of imported crops. Some of the most potent natural toxins Marshaling Technology for Development known to science are produced by marine organisms. Some indigenous peoples who share their knowledge of native medicine with RITA COLWELL researchers and corporations that later develop these materials into drugs believe they should be rewarded for their information, in some cases with a patent. The university was never heard from again and the Marshaling Technology for Development herbarium director was roundly criticized by his colleagues for letting a 'golden opportunity' pass. Login or Register to save! Stay Connected!

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