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But in-depth reporting is costly, so to continue this vital work, we have an ambitious goal to add 5, new members. We rely on readers like you to fund our journalism. Will you support our work and become a Vox Member today? To the surprise of almost everyone involved, therapy using MDMA — commonly known as ecstasy — will probably not become legal this year. There were lots of problems with the evidence about the drug itself. So, to what extent were those who got MDMA healing because they knew they were getting the real drug and expecting that it would help them? No one can tell. But there was another major question looming over Lykos previously known as MAPS public benefit corporation, the biggest force pushing psychedelics toward legalization over the past few decades. Therapy is not just one practice — there are many different approaches, from psychoanalysis to exposure therapy. Some types of therapy, like cognitive behavioral therapy , have plenty of evidence to back up their effectiveness when used on their own. Others, not so much. Lykos favors certain therapy modalities that have less of an evidence base and more of a New Age flavor. Holotropic breathwork is the brainchild of psychiatrist Stanislav Grof. Like many an ancient meditator before him, he found that intense breathing techniques can trigger something akin to a psychedelic trip. The Lykos treatment manual makes clear its intellectual debt to IFS. You might be thinking: So what? Many people feel like they do have a core self, and if that idea helps them heal, why not embrace it? Maybe the person is just triggered. In one case, therapist Veronika Gold touched a patient, Annie, who became distressed and physically struggled against her. Gold was not troubled. Get your fucking hands away from me! Over the course of the next several minutes, she pushed my hands with increasing vigor and force. In , Buisson — a sexual assault survivor who came in the hope of healing her PTSD — was pinned down and cuddled by her therapists, a married couple. Video footage shows the therapists continuing to touch her even after she reacts with distress. Later, the male therapist had sex with Buisson; in a lawsuit, she alleged that it was sexual assault. This gives therapists an unusual amount of latitude. If the patient complies, the Lykos logic enables the therapists to read that as the wise self talking. In fact, they can view themselves as getting the most authentic consent possible since the premise is that a patient is more able to access the true self during an MDMA trip than during regular life, when mental health issues obfuscate that inner wisdom. And if the patient resists? At its worst, the logic forms a tight, self-confirming loop, one that could increase risks to the patient rather than minimizing them. To some degree, the distinction is in the eye of the beholder. Former employees have also said that the company pushed ideological conformity. And other people will be able to do this as well. All of this really comes back to Stan Grof And we are coming forward to fulfill the promise. The psychedelic renaissance is here to help consciousness triumph. The declaration has the feel of apocalyptic logic. Found in many religious traditions, apocalypticism warns that catastrophe is looming and that humanity needs a tool to achieve salvation. To make such an omelet, there is surely no limit to the number of eggs that should be broken. But running psychotherapy studies is even harder than running drug trials. In , there was zero federal funding; since then, one study has been funded. That means most of the funding has had to come from industry or philanthropy. Among philanthropists, there may also be a feeling that the drug, not the therapy, is the exciting new thing. But the fact that the therapy component of MDMA therapy is so understudied is a major problem. That agency is set up to evaluate drugs; before the Lykos case, it had never attempted to evaluate therapy. With psychedelic treatments, the therapy component seems to be key to healing , so we should expect to see a growing number of applications for combined drug-therapy treatments — and that means the FDA itself may need to change. Understand the world with a daily explainer plus the most compelling stories of the day. My faith gave me my moral values. AI is here to stay and the Nobels know it. Did they actually figure out why nations fail? The 11 policies that could help the cities of the future. The human mind is designed to predict, but uncertainty helps us thrive. The public did not consent to artificial general intelligence. Skip to main content The homepage Vox Vox logo. The homepage Vox Vox logo. Navigation Drawer. Become a Member. Vox Vox logo The biggest unknown in psychedelic therapy is not the psychedelics. Support Vox. Future Perfect. Facebook Link. Avalon via Getty Images. She writes primarily about the future of consciousness, tracking advances in artificial intelligence and neuroscience and their staggering ethical implications. Before joining Vox, Sigal was the religion editor at the Atlantic. Related: New technologies are promising a shortcut to enlightenment. Most Popular. The big political shift that explains the election. Member Exclusive. Today, Explained Understand the world with a daily explainer plus the most compelling stories of the day. Email required. By submitting your email, you agree to our Terms and Privacy Notice. Advertiser Content From. More in Future Perfect. I left my religion. Should I still raise my kid with it? Sick of AI hype? I have some bad news. Cities face daunting challenges. Mike Bloomberg wants to help them help each other. Your mind needs chaos. 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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Correspondence to: Matthias E Liechti; Email: matthias. The moral rights of the named author s have been asserted. Hyperthermia is a severe complication associated with the recreational use of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA, Ecstasy. In this review, the clinical laboratory studies that tested the effects of MDMA on body temperature are summarized. The mechanisms that underlie the hyperthermic effects of MDMA in humans and treatment of severe hyperthermia are presented. The data show that MDMA produces an acute and dose-dependent rise in core body temperature in healthy subjects. The increase in body temperature is in the range of 0. MDMA primarily releases serotonin and norepinephrine. Mechanistic clinical studies indicate that the MDMA-induced elevations in body temperature in humans partially depend on the MDMA-induced release of norepinephrine and involve enhanced metabolic heat generation and cutaneous vasoconstriction, resulting in impaired heat dissipation. The mediating role of serotonin is unclear. The management of sympathomimetic toxicity and associated hyperthermia mainly includes sedation with benzodiazepines and intravenous fluid replacement. Severe hyperthermia should primarily be treated with additional cooling and mechanical ventilation. Keywords: hyperthermia, hyperpyrexia, MDMA, norepinephrine, serotonin, treatment. MDMA-induced hyperpyrexia is relatively rare and not observed in placebo-controlled studies in humans. However, moderate effects of MDMA on body temperature have been documented in several placebo-controlled laboratory studies in human subjects. This review summarizes the clinical studies on MDMA-induced hyperthermic effects and the potential pharmacological mechanisms that are involved in humans. Many preclinical studies for review, see 1 but relatively few clinical studies have evaluated the effects of MDMA on body temperature. The present review focuses on the findings from placebo-controlled studies that assessed MDMA in humans and addresses treatment options for hyperpyrexia caused by recreational Ecstasy use. The thermal effects of Ecstasy in dance clubbers have previously been described and summarized. The association between Ecstasy use and hyperpyrexia is well-established, and reports were systematically compiled by Grunau and colleagues. Drug-induced hyperthermia resembles heat stroke. In heat stroke, heat dissipation is primarily impaired by a hot environment, and heat generation is often increased by exertion. In drug-induced hyperthermia, the drug exerts direct actions to increase metabolic heat generation and reduce heat dissipation as mostly studied in animals, 7, whereas a hot environment and exertion may act as additional permissive factors. Clinical laboratory studies that investigated the effects of MDMA using a placebo-controlled study design are summarized in Table 1. MDMA was administered orally in all these studies but different doses were used. Body temperature was not the primary outcome measure in these studies, with one exception. Pooled analyses of the effects of MDMA have been reported using aggregated data from smaller studies with 27 subjects by da la Torre and colleagues, 41 74 subjects by Liechti and colleagues, 34 and 80 subjects by Hysek and Liechti. Importantly, these body temperatures were measured with subjects at rest and at a mean room temperature of The time course of the increase in tympanic body temperature after MDMA administration at a dose of mg in 96 subjects is shown in Figure 2. The figure shows the pooled data from all our 6 published studies using the mg dose of MDMA. Effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine MDMA, mg orally and placebo on core body tympanic temperature in healthy subjects. MDMA was administered in a quiet hospital setting and the subjects were not physically active. Several other smaller studies have also evaluated the thermogenic effects of MDMA. Oral temperature slightly increased after doses of 75 and mg MDMA in 8 subjects, but no statistically significant differences were observed compared with placebo. Harris and colleagues measured both skin i. Unfortunately, no other studies have measured finger temperature to confirm this finding in a larger sample. Kirkpatrick and colleagues found that MDMA at an oral dose of mg had no effects on oral body temperature in 11 subjects. In all of the other studies, body temperature was a secondary measure. Core body temperature was measured in 10 subjects using an ingested radiotelemetry pill. Absolute core temperatures were higher after MDMA in the warm environment compared with the cold environment. However, core temperature was also higher in the warm environment compared with the cold environment after placebo. Thus, MDMA similarly increased core temperature at the low and high ambient temperatures compared with placebo. Skin temperature was markedly increased in the hot and decreased in the cold environment, and MDMA produced a near-significant increase in skin temperature under both temperature conditions and compared with placebo. Altogether, considering the pooled data analyses from our laboratory and those of the Freedman study, MDMA is well documented to produce an acute and dose-dependent elevation in core body temperature in healthy subjects. The increase in body temperature is also evidently rather small, in the range of 0. Importantly, no laboratory study observed MDMA-induced hyperpyrexia in a controlled setting. Several mechanistic studies assessed the effects of pharmacological pretreatments on the response to MDMA in healthy subjects to evaluate the mediating role of different neurotransmitters and receptors. These human studies also provide important information on the mechanisms involved in MDMA-induced increases in body temperature and likely also in the more severe hyperpyrexia associated with uncontrolled use. MDMA mainly releases serotonin and norepinephrine and to a lesser extent dopamine through the corresponding presynaptic monoamine transporters. Serotonin transporter inhibitors block the interaction between MDMA with the transporter to release serotonin. Serotonin transporter inhibitors reduced the psychotropic and most physiological effects of MDMA in healthy humans, 43, suggesting a mediating role for serotonin in most effects of MDMA in humans. Regarding the thermogenic effects of MDMA, serotonin transporter inhibition reduced MDMA-induced increases in oral 55 but not axillary body temperature. Interestingly, in animals, serotonin transporter inhibition reduced MDMA-induced hyperthermia in mice 57 but not rats. The serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor antagonist ketanserin reduced the MDMA-induced elevation in body temperature in humans, 44 consistent with studies in rats. The serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor antagonist pindolol did not alter the MDMA-induced increase in body temperature in humans, 60 also consistent with preclinical data. Preclinical data suggest a role for the dopamine D 1 receptor in the mediation of hyperthermia associated with MDMA. The interaction between MDMA and the dopamine D 2 receptor antagonist haloperidol was examined in healthy subjects, but MDMA did not produce significant elevations in body temperature in that study to provide meaningful results. Further human studies examined the contributing role of different adrenergic receptors. Peripheral vasoconstriction and improper heat dissipation have also been identified as critical mechanisms that underlie MDMA-induced core brain hyperthermia in rats treated with MDMA under conditions that simulate drug use in humans. Dumont and colleagues studied the interactive effects of MDMA and tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy subjects. Tetrahydrocannabinol delayed the MDMA-induced increase in temperature, and the duration of the temperature elevation was prolonged, although the mean temperature increase was comparable to administration of MDMA alone. Several experimental human studies also tested the effects of other psychostimulants with a slightly different pharmacology than MDMA on body temperature. Various psychostimulants, including MDMA, enhance noradrenergic neurotransmission, but their relative dopaminergic vs. For example, Tancer and Johanson assessed the effects of MDMA, D-amphetamine mostly a dopamine and norepinephrine releaser , and metachlorophenylpiperazine a serotonin inhibitor and releaser on oral temperature in the same study. Similar to amphetamine, methylphenidate a selective dopamine and norepinephrine transporter inhibitor with no serotonergic properties also acutely increased body temperature in humans when given at a dose of 40 mg 47 or 60 mg. Therefore, norepinephrine likely contributes to the thermogenic effects of these substances, consistent with the reducing effects of carvedilol on the temperature response to MDMA. A series of novel psychoactive substances with structural similarity to MDMA have been implicated in hyperpyrexia. In particular, para-methoxyamphetamine and para-methoxymethamphetamine, which are occasionally sold as Ecstasy, 69 have been associated with an especially high risk of hyperthermia. Four-Methylthioamphetamine is another serotonergic compound 73 that has been linked to hyperthermia. Altogether, the mechanistic studies in humans provide support for the conclusion that MDMA mainly increases body temperature via the release of norepinephrine, which then increases metabolic heat generation and impairs heat dissipation via vasoconstriction. Additionally, the release of serotonin may also contribute to the thermogenic effects of MDMA in humans. The various treatments for hyperpyrexia induced by MDMA or other psychostimulants have not been systematically evaluated in the emergency room setting. Hyperthermic complications are relatively rare, and clinical trials are unlikely to be conducted. However, as described above, several placebo-controlled mechanistic experimental studies have been conducted with healthy subjects, which can inform us on the pharmacological mechanism of MDMA-induced hyperthermia in humans and potential effects of pharmacological treatments. As a limitation, the experimental studies used doses of pure MDMA in the range of mg while recreational users of ecstasy pills may ingest MDMA at lager doses or repeated doses. For example, in an naturalistic observational study among 49 partying people, 34 used doses of MDMA of mg while 15 took cumulative doses of mg. Paramedics and emergency department personnel must recognize hyperthermia in subjects with acute substance-induced disorders. It is not uncommon that agitated subjects die of hyperpyrexia because body temperature was not measured, and elevations in body temperature went unrecognized. Agitated subjects should not be restrained. Antipsychotics, such as haloperidol, should not be used as a routine treatment of drug-induced agitation or only with great care and after treatment with benzodiazepines. Antipsychotics are associated with hyperthermia in the context of neuroleptic malignant syndrome and some e. Additionally, haloperidol has been shown to enhance acute anxiety and the negative mood effects of MDMA 46 and psilocybin. The atypical antipychotic clozapine has been shown to reverse hyperthermia and cutaneous vasoconstriction induced by MDMA in rats or rabbits 82 but human data to support its clinical use are lacking. Hyperthermia is often associated with other signs of sympathomimetic stimulation, including agitation, tachycardia, and hypertension. Benzodiazepines are also beneficial in the treatment of these symptoms. However, additional hypertensive treatment with vasodilators, such as nitrates, may be needed. Adrenergic receptor antagonists can be useful. Phentolamine was successfully used to treat a hypertensive emergency caused by amphetamine overdose. Besides from hyperthermia, brain edema is another severe complication of MDMA use. MDMA induces a syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone which may lead to symptomatic hyponatremia including brain edema in particular in women. Additionally, animal studies indicate that the blood-brain barrier is disrupted during MDMA-induced hyperthermia also leading to brain edema. MDMA increases body temperature in humans. The MDMA-induced elevations in body temperature in humans appear to depend on the MDMA-induced release of norepinephrine and involve cutaneous vasoconstriction and likely also enhanced metabolic heat generation. The role of serotonin needs further clarification. The management of overdose cases includes sedation treatment with benzodiazepines, intravenous fluid replacement, and additional cooling and mechanical ventilation in severe cases. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Temperature Austin. Find articles by Matthias E Liechti. Open in a new tab. Placebo-controlled studies that investigated effects of MDMA on body temperature. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel.

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