German Democratic Republic
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German Democratic Republic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Socialist state in Central Europe from 1949 to 1990
"GDR" redirects here. For other uses, see GDR (disambiguation) .
This article is about the country that existed from 1949 to 1990. For the modern east of Germany, see New states of Germany . For the group of extinct Germanic languages, see East Germanic languages .
The territory of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) from its creation on 7 October 1949 until its dissolution on 3 October 1990
East German mark (1949–1990), officially named:
Deutsche Mark (1949–1964)
Mark der Deutschen Notenbank (1964–1967)
Mark der DDR (1967–1990)
Deutsche Mark (from 1 July 1990)
The initial flag of East Germany adopted in 1949 was identical to that of West Germany . In 1959, the East German government issued a new version of the flag bearing the national emblem, serving to distinguish East from West.
Further information: History of Germany
West and East Berlin with the Berlin Wall
Further information: Free German Youth
This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( June 2015 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )
^ Not recognised by the Three Powers: France , United Kingdom and the United States .
^ The SED was established in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany , before the GDR's foundation.
^ Served as Joint Chairmen together.
^ October–December
^ Dissolved by the Volkskammer on 8 December 1958.
^ Population statistics according to Statistisches Bundesamt .
^ Although .dd was reserved as corresponding ISO code for East Germany, it was not entered to the root before the country was reunited with the west.
^ The use of the abbreviation BRD (FRG) for West Germany, the Bundesrepublik Deutschland ( Federal Republic of Germany ), on the other hand, was never accepted in West Germany since it was considered a political statement. Thus BRD (FRG) was a term used by East Germans, or by West Germans who held a pro-East-German view. Colloquially, West Germans called West Germany simply Germany (reflecting West Germany's claim to represent the whole of Germany), or alternatively the Bundesrepublik or Bundesgebiet (Federal Republic or Federal Territory, respectively), referring to the country and Bundesbürger (Federal citizen) for its citizens, with the adjective bundesdeutsch (Federal German).
^ For example, the economist Jörg Roesler – see: Jörg Roesler: Ein Anderes Deutschland war möglich. Alternative Programme für das wirtschaftliche Zusammengehen beider deutscher Staaten, in: Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung , No. II/2010, pp.34–46. The historian Ulrich Busch argued that the currency union came too early; see Ulrich Busch: Die Währungsunion am 1. Juli 1990: Wirtschaftspolitische Fehlleistung mit Folgen, in: Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung , No. II/2010, pp. 5–24.
^ The Eastern churches were the Evangelical Church of Anhalt , Evangelical Church in Berlin, Brandenburg and Silesian Upper Lusatia#Evangelical Church in Berlin-Brandenburg (EKiBB, East Ambit, for East Berlin and Brandenburg), Evangelical Church of the Görlitz Ecclesiastical Region , Evangelical Church in Greifswald , Evangelical Lutheran Church of Mecklenburg , Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony , Evangelical Church of the Church Province of Saxony (KPS), Evangelical Lutheran Church in Thuringia and Evangelical Church of the Union (East Region, for EKiBB-East Ambit, Görlitz, Greifswald and KPS, and since 1970 for Anhalt too).
^ This quote has no cross-referencing to ground its authenticity. For a detailed overview of the issues of Brecht's legacy after his death within the Berliner Ensemble, see David Barnett, A History of the Berliner Ensemble (Cambridge University Press, 2015), 146–70. ISBN 978-1-107-05979-5 .
^ 'In the age of detente, the Stasi's main method of combating subversive activity was 'operational decomposition' ( operative Zersetzung ) which was the central element in what Hubertus Knabe has called a system of 'quiet repression' ( lautlose Unterdrukung ). This was not a new departure as 'dirty tricks' had been widely used in the 1950s and 1960s. The distinctive feature was the primacy of operational decomposition over other methods of repression in a system to which historians have attached labels such as post-totalitarianism and modern dictatorship.' Dennis, Mike (2003). "Tackling the enemy- quiet repression and preventive decomposition". The Stasi: Myth and Reality . Pearson Education Limited. p. 112. ISBN 0582414229 .
^ "Council for Mutual Economic Assistance" . Encyclopedia.com . Archived from the original on 7 March 2018 . Retrieved 6 March 2018 .
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^ "Bevölkerungsstand" (in German). Statistisches Bundesamt . Archived from the original on 13 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "GDR" . World Inequality Database.
^ "Human Development Report 1990" (PDF) . hdr.undp.org . January 1990.
^ "Top-Level-Domain .DD" (in German). Archived from the original on 4 November 2015.
^ Patrick Major, Jonathan Osmond, The Workers' and Peasants' State: Communism and Society in East Germany Under Ulbricht 1945–71 , Manchester University Press , 2002, ISBN 978-0-7190-6289-6
^ Karl Dietrich Erdmann, Jürgen Kocka, Wolfgang J. Mommsen, Agnes Blänsdorf. Towards a Global Community of Historians: the International Historical Congresses and the International Committee of Historical Sciences 1898–2000 . Berghahn Books, 2005, p. 314. ("However the collapse of the Soviet empire, associated with the disintegration of the Soviet satellite regimes in East-Central Europe, including the German Democratic Republic, brought about a dramatic change of agenda.")
^ "Thousands rally in East Germany" . Eugene Register-Guard . Associated Press. 29 October 1989. p. 5A.
^ Grix, Jonathan; Cooke, Paul (2003). East German Distinctiveness in a Unified Germany . p. 17. ISBN 978-1-902459-17-2 .
^ Peter E. Quint. The Imperfect Union: Constitutional Structures of German Unification , Princeton University Press , 2012, pp. 125–126.
^ Preuss, Evelyn. "The Wall You Will Never Know" . Perspecta: The Yale Architectural Journal . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press : 19–31.
^ "Three Top Commies Flee East Germany" . Sarasota Herald-Tribune . 23 January 1953. pp. 1–2 . Retrieved 21 November 2019 – via Google News .
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^ "Eugene Register-Guard – Google News Archive Search" . news.google.com . Retrieved 26 April 2021 .
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^ Jump up to: a b Berlin Korrespondent (June 1949). "Nationale Front in der Ostzone" . Die Zeit . Archived from the original on 11 November 2013 . Retrieved 10 May 2013 .
^ "Vom Sogenannten" . Der Spiegel . 21 October 1968. p. 65. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016.
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^ Wildenthal, Lora. The Language of Human Rights in West Germany . p. 210.
^ Cornfield, Daniel B. and Hodson, Randy (2002). Worlds of Work: Building an International Sociology of Work. Springer, p. 223. ISBN 0-306-46605-8
^ Pollak, Michael (2005). "Ein Text in seinem Kontext" . Östereichische Zeitschrift für Soziologie (in German). 30 : 3–21. doi : 10.1007/s11614-006-0033-6 . S2CID 147022466 .
^ Baranowski, Shelley (6 April 1995). The Sanctity of Rural Life: Nobility, Protestantism, and Nazism in Weimar Prussia . pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-0-19-536166-7 . Archived from the original on 1 December 2019 . Retrieved 16 November 2019 .
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^ "Each spring, millions of workmen from all parts of western Russia arrived in eastern Germany, which, in political language, is called East Elbia." from The Stronghold of Junkerdom , by George Sylvester Viereck . Viereck's, Volume 8. Fatherland Corporation, 1918
^ Compare: Ritter, Gerhard A. (April 2002). "Die DDR in der deutschen Geschichte" [The GDR in German history] (PDF) . Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (in German). 50 (2): 171–172. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 November 2019 . Retrieved 16 November 2019 . Die Geschichte der DDR ist im wesentlichen zwischen zwei Polen einzubetten. Den einen Pol bildet die Sowjetisierung […] Den anderen Pol bildeten deutsche Traditionen, vor allem die Vorstellungen der kommunistischen Arbeiterbewegung.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ritter, Gerhard A. (April 2002). "Die DDR in der deutschen Geschichte" [The GDR in German history] (PDF) . Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (in German). 50 (2): 171–200. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 November 2019 . Retrieved 16 November 2019 . In der Sozialpolitik hielten sich die Kontinuitäten und die Brüche mit der deutschen Tradition etwa die Waage. […] Seit Mitte der sechziger Jahre, vor allem aber in der Ära Honecker, in der die 'Einheit von Wirtschafts- und Sozialpolitik' zum Leitprinzip erhoben wurde, wurde die Sozialpolitik die wohl wichtigste Legitimationsgrundlage des Staates.
^ "Yalta Conference" . spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk . Archived from the original on 14 May 2011 . Retrieved 25 September 2010 .
^ On the discussion about Social Democrats joining the SED see Steffen Kachel, Entscheidung für die SED 1946 – ein Verrat an sozialdemokratischen Idealen?, in: Jahrbuch für Forschungen zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung , No. I/2004. [ date missing ]
^ Stiftung Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. "LeMO Kapitel: Zwangsvereinigung zur SED" . hdg.de (in German). Archived from the original on 14 June 2012 . Retrieved 15 July 2012 .
^ See Anna M. Cienciala "History 557 Lecture Notes" Archived 20 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
^ Steininger, Rolf (1990). The German Question: The Stalin Note of 1952 and the Problem of Reunification. New York, NY: Columbia University.
^ Roth, Gary. "Review of Hoffmann, Dierk, _Otto Grotewohl (1894–1964): Eine politische Biographie_" H-German, H-Net Reviews. November 2010. online Archived 17 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
^ Gomez Gutiérrez, J. J., & Bruschi, V. (2003). Socialist Unity Party of Germany. In N. Schlager (Ed.), St. James encyclopedia of labor history worldwide: Major events in labor history and their impact. St. James Press.
^ "Political prisoners in the German Democratic Republic" . Political prisoners in the German Democratic Republic | Communist Crimes . Retrieved 24 November 2020 .
^ Peterson, Edward N. (1999). Russian commands and German resistance : the Soviet Occupation, 1945–1949 . New York: P. Lang. p. 5. ISBN 0-8204-3948-7 . OCLC 38207545 .
^ Peterson, Edward N. (1999). Russian commands and German resistance : the Soviet Occupation, 1945–1949 . New York: P. Lang. ISBN 0-8204-3948-7 . OCLC 38207545 .
^ Stokes, Raymond G. (2000). Constructing socialism : technology and change in East Germany 1945-1990 . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7299-5 . OCLC 51480817 .
^ "State symbols: the quest for legitimacy in the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, 1949–1959", by Margarete Myers Feinstein, page 78: " ... claims of East Berlin as the capital of the GDR, ... East Berlin was not recognized by the West and most Third World countries"
^ Fulbrook, Mary; Port, Andrew I. (2013). Becoming East German: Socialist Structures and Sensibilities after Hitler . Berghahn Books. ISBN 9780857459756 .
^ Michael D. Haydock, City Under Siege: The Berlin Blockade and Airlift, 1948–1949 (2000)
^ Weitz 1997 , p. 350 Following a Soviet order in February 1948, the German Economic Commission became a nascent state structure for all intents and purposes, with competence far beyond the economy proper; it gained the power to issue orders and directives to all German organs within the Soviet Occupation Zone.
^ McCauley 1983 , p. 38 The DWK had become the de facto government of the Soviet zone. Its chairman was Heinrich Rau (SED), and four of his six deputies were also SED members.
^ Patrick Major and Jonathan Osmund, Workers' and Peasants' State: Communism and Society in East Germany under Ulbricht, 1945–71 (2002)
^ East Berlin 17 June 1953: Stones Against Tanks Archived 23 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine , Deutsche Welle . Retrieved 16 May 2007.
^ Victor Baras, "Beria's Fall and Ulbricht's Survival", Soviet Studies , 1975, Vol. 27 Issue 3, pp. 381–395
^ Jump up to: a b Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7 pp. 167–9.
^ Frederick Taylor, Berlin Wall: A World Divided, 1961–1989 (2007)
^ Allinson, Mark; Leaman, Jeremy; Parkes, Stuart; Tolkiehn, Barbara (30 July 2014). Contemporary Germany: Essays and Texts on Politics, Economics & Society (in German). London and New York: Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-1-317-87977-0 . Retrieved 10 August 2021 .
^ Henry Krisch, "Soviet-GDR Relations in the Honecker Era", East Central Europe, December 1979, Vol. 6 Issue 2, pp. 152–172.
^ Jump up to: a b "East Germany: The Price of Recognition" . Time . 1 January 1973. Archived from the original on 18 December 2011 . Retrieved 21 October 2011 .
^ Quint, Peter E. (1991), The Imperfect Union; Constitutional Structures for German Unification , Princeton University Press, p. 14
^ Kommers, Donald P. (2012), The Constitutional Jursiprudence of the Federal Republic of Germany , Duke University Press , p. 308
^ Texas Law: Foreign Law Translations 1973 , University of Texas , archived from the original on 20 December 2016 , retrieved 7 December 2016
^ Eric G. E. Zuelow (2011). Touring Beyond the Nation: A Transnational Approach to European Tourism History . p. 220. ISBN 978-0-7546-6656-1 .
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^ Jump up to: a b c Weitz 1997 , p. [ page needed ]
^ Combe, Sonia (April 2020). "À Buchenwald, les antifascistes ont perdu la guerre mémorielle" . Le Monde diplomatique (in French). {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: url-status ( link )
^ Tillack-Graf, Anne-Kathleen (2012). Erinnerungspolitik der DDR. Dargestellt an der Berichterstattung der Tageszeitung "Neues Deutschland" über die Nationalen Mahn- und Gedenkstätten Buchenwald, Ravensbrück und Sachsenhausen (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. pp. 2–3, 88–91. ISBN 978-3-631-63678-7 .
^ Jump up to: a b Combe, Sonia (January 2021). "Antisémite, l'Allemagne de l'Est ?" . Le Monde diplomatique (in French). {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: url-status ( link )
^ Benyahia-Kouider, Odile (2013). L'Allemagne paiera (in French). pp. 166–167.
^ Benyahia-Kouider, Odile (2013). L'Allemagne paiera (in French). p. 179.
^ Jump up to: a b Pfeil, Ulrich. "Die DDR als Zankapfel in Forschung und Politik" . Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (in German). {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: url-status ( link )
^ Jump up to: a b Judt 2005 , p. 612
^ The Berlin Wall (1961–89) German Notes. Retrieved 24 October 2006.
^ Miklós Németh in Interview, Austrian TV – ORF "Report", 25 June 2019.
^ Jump up to: a b Szabo, Hilde (16 August 1999). "Die Berliner Mauer begann im Burgenland zu bröckeln" [The Berlin Wall began to crumble in Burgenland]. Wiener Zeitung (in German).
^ Otmar Lahodynsky: Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall (Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall – German), in: Profil 9 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Greven, Ludwig (19 August 2014). "Und dann ging das Tor auf" [And then the Gate Opened]. Die Zeit .
^ Otmar Lahodynsky "Eiserner Vorhang: Picknick an der Grenze" (Iron curtain: picnic at the border – German), in Profil 13 June 2019.
^ Roser, Thomas (17 August 2018). "DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln" [Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world]. Die Presse (in German).
^ Frank, Michael (17 May 2010). "Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit" [Pan-European picnic – With the picnic basket to freedom]. Süddeutsche Zeitung (in German).
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^ Wegner, Gregory (February 1996). "In the Shadow of the Third Reich: The "Jugendstunde" and the Legitimation of Anti-Fascist Heroes for East German Youth". German Studies Review . 19 (1): 127–146. doi : 10.2307/1431716 . ISSN 0149-7952 . JSTOR 1431716 .
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