Fluorescent Tube

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"Tubelight" redirects here. For other uses, see Tubelight (disambiguation) .
For Lamp sizes and designations, see Fluorescent-lamp formats .
"CCFL" redirects here. For other uses, see CCFL (disambiguation) .

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^ Kane & Sell 2001 , p. 185.

^ Van Broekhoven 2001 , p. 93.

^ T12 specifies the bulb's diameter in 1/8 inch units; a T12 bulb is 12×(1/8) inches or 1.5 in (38 mm) in diameter.

^ Jump up to: a b c General Electric, Fluorescent Lamps Technical Bulletin TP 111R , December 1978

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^ Jump up to: a b "Datasheet of typical electronic starter (not fast start), with detailed explanation of operation" (PDF) .

^ Jump up to: a b "Datasheet of typical fast start electronic starter, with detailed explanation of operation" (PDF) .

^ Jump up to: a b "Electronic Tube Starter 300C Fastlux for fluorescent strip lights" . www.tabelek.co.uk .

^ Jump up to: a b "Soft Start Electronic Starter for fluorescent tubes the UM2 Multi Pulse" . www.tabelek.co.uk .

^ Quick Start for Fluorescent Lights "All three of the 'FAST' (< .5 seconds) starter brands caused an audible 'BURRRRRRRP' noise in some light fittings as they started and this is an inherent problem caused by their use of the faster 'DC' heating. It is worse with higher wattage tubes and if there is any loose metal in the light fitting."

^ Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings by Walter T Grondzik, Alison Kwok, Benjamin Stein, John S Reynolds -- Wiley Publishing 2010 Page 545--546

^ Thorn Lighting Technical Handbook

^ Kane & Sell 2001 , p. 182.

^ "Energy Conservation Standards for Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts" (PDF) . US Department of Energy. p. 3–23. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-08-03 . Retrieved 2012-01-29 .

^ Corazza, A.; Giorgi, S.; Massaro, V. (October 5–9, 2008). "Mercury Dosing in Fluorescent Lamps". 2008 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting . Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting. IEEE. pp. 1–4. doi : 10.1109/08IAS.2008.237 . ISSN 0197-2618 .

^ "Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp" (PDF) . Harison Toshiba Corp. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-10-22 . Retrieved 2007-10-22 .

^ Karlen, Mark; Benya, James R.; Spangler, Christina (June 1, 2012). Lighting Design Basics . John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118287927 .

^ Lenk, Ron; Lenk, Carol (March 10, 2017). Practical Lighting Design with LEDs . John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781119165323 .

^ Unknown n.d. , p. 8.

^ Stiller, Michael (July 16, 2013). Quality Lighting for High Performance Buildings . Lulu Press, Inc. ISBN 9781304236159 .

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^ Panasonic. "Panasonic Spiral Fluorescent ceiling lights, 124.3lm/W" . Retrieved 2010-09-27 .

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^ "Compact Fluorescent Lighting" (PDF) . eere.energy.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-11 . Retrieved 2012-07-24 .

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^ "Frequently Asked Questions Information on Compact Fluorescent Light Bulbs (CFLs) and Mercury" (PDF) . July 2008 . Retrieved 2020-06-04 .

^ "Commercial Lighting: Lamp Recyclers" . LampRecycle.org .

^ "Mercury-Containing Light Bulb (Lamp) Regulatory Framework" . EPA.gov . Archived from the original on 2010-01-25.

^ "Mercury-Containing Light Bulb (Lamp) Collection and Recycling Programs Where You Live" . EPA.gov . Archived from the original on 2010-01-10.

^ Lytle, CD; Cyr, WH; Beer, JZ; Miller, SA; James, RH; Landry, RJ; Jacobs, ME; Kaczmarek, RG; Sharkness, CM; Gaylor, D; et al. (December 1993). "An Estimation of Squamous Cell Carcinoma Risk from Ultraviolet Radiation Emitted by Fluorescent Lamps". Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed . 9 (6): 268–74. PMID 1343229 .

^ Nicole, Wendee (2012). "Ultraviolet leaks from CFLs" . Environmental Health Perspectives . 120 (10): a387. doi : 10.1289/ehp.120-a387 . PMC 3491932 . PMID 23026199 .

^ Moseley, Harry; Ferguson, James (2011). "The risk to normal and photosensitive individuals from exposure to light from compact fluorescent lamps" . Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine . 27 (3): 131–137. doi : 10.1111/j.1600-0781.2011.00576.x . PMID 21535166 . S2CID 9509601 .

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^ Kane & Sell 2001 , p. 120.

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A fluorescent lamp , or fluorescent tube , is a low-pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An electric current in the gas excites mercury vapor, which produces short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp to glow. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into useful light much more efficiently than incandescent lamps. The typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable light output. In comparison, the luminous efficacy of an incandescent bulb is only 16 lumens per watt.

Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps because they require a ballast to regulate the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost. Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in the same popular sizes as incandescents and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.

Because they contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste . The United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends that fluorescent lamps be segregated from general waste for recycling or safe disposal, and some jurisdictions require recycling of them. [3]

The fluorescence of certain rocks and other substances had been observed for hundreds of years before its nature was understood. By the middle of the 19th century, experimenters had observed a radiant glow emanating from partially evacuated glass vessels through which an electric current passed. One of the first to explain it was the Irish scientist Sir George Stokes from the University of Cambridge in 1852, who named the phenomenon "fluorescence" after fluorite , a mineral many of whose samples glow strongly because of impurities. The explanation relied on the nature of electricity and light phenomena as developed by the British scientists Michael Faraday in the 1840s and James Clerk Maxwell in the 1860s. [4]

Little more was done with this phenomenon until 1856 when German glassblower Heinrich Geissler created a mercury vacuum pump that evacuated a glass tube to an extent not previously possible. Geissler invented the first gas-discharge lamp, the Geissler tube , consisting of a partially evacuated glass tube with a metal electrode at either end. When a high voltage was applied between the electrodes, the inside of the tube lit up with a glow discharge . By putting different chemicals inside, the tubes could be made to produce a variety of colors, and elaborate Geissler tubes were sold for entertainment. More important, however, was its contribution to scientific research. One of the first scientists to experiment with a Geissler tube was Julius Plücker who systematically described in 1858 the luminescent effects that occurred in a Geissler tube. He also made the important observation that the glow in the tube shifted position when in proximity to an electromagnetic field . Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observed in 1859 that certain substances gave off light when they were placed in a Geissler tube. He went on to apply thin coatings of luminescent materials to the surfaces of these tubes. Fluorescence occurred, but the tubes were very inefficient and had a short operating life. [5]

Inquiries that began with the Geissler tube continued as even better vacuums were produced. The most famous was the evacuated tube used for scientific research by William Crookes . That tube was evacuated by the highly effective mercury vacuum pump created by Hermann Sprengel . Research conducted by Crookes and others ultimately led to the discovery of the electron in 1897 by J. J. Thomson and X-rays in 1895 by Wilhelm Roentgen . But the Crookes tube , as it came to be known, produced little light because the vacuum in it was too good and thus lacked the trace amounts of gas that are needed for electrically stimulated luminescence .

Thomas Edison briefly pursued fluorescent lighting for its commercial potential. He invented a fluorescent lamp in 1896 that used a coating of calcium tungstate as the fluorescing substance, excited by X-rays , but although it received a patent in 1907, [6] it was not put into production. As with a few other attempts to use Geissler tubes for illumination, it had a short operating life, and given the success of the incandescent light, Edison had little reason to pursue an alternative means of electrical illumination. Nikola Tesla made similar experiments in the 1890s, devising high-frequency powered fluorescent bulbs that gave a bright greenish light, but as with Edison's devices, no commercial success was achieved.

One of Edison's former employees created a gas-discharge lamp that achieved a measure of commercial success. In 1895 Daniel McFarlan Moore demonstrated lamps 2 to 3 meters (6.6 to 9.8 ft) in length that used carbon dioxide or nitrogen to emit white or pink light, respectively. They were considerably more complicated than an incandescent bulb, requiring both a high-voltage power supply and a pressure regulating system for the fill gas. [7]

Moore invented an electromagnetically controlled valve that maintained a constant gas pressure within the tube, to extend the working life. [8] Although Moore's lamp was complicated, expensive, and required very high voltages, it was considerably more efficient than incandescent lamps, and it produced a closer approximation to natural daylight than contemporary incandescent lamps. From 1904 onwards Moore's lighting system was installed in a number of stores and offices. [9] Its success contributed to General Electric ’s motivation to improve the incandescent lamp, especially its filament. GE's efforts came to fruition with the invention of a tungsten -based filament. The extended lifespan and improved efficacy of incandescent bulbs negated one of the key advantages of Moore's lamp, but GE purchased the relevant patents in 1912. These patents and the inventive efforts that supported them were to be of considerable value when the firm took up fluorescent lighting more than two decades later.

At about the same time that Moore was developing his lighting system, Peter Cooper Hewitt invented the mercury-vapor lamp , patented in 1901 ( US 682692 ). Hewitt's lamp glowed when an electric current was passed through mercury vapor at a low pressure. Unlike Moore's lamps, Hewitt's were manufactured in standardized sizes and operated at low voltages. The mercury-vapor lamp was superior to the incandescent lamps of the time in terms of energy efficiency, but the blue-green light it produced limited its applications. It was, however, used for photography and some industrial processes.

Mercury vapor lamps continued to be developed at a slow pace, especially in Europe, and by the early 1930s they received limited use for large-scale illumination. Some of them employed fluorescent coatings, but these were used primarily for color correction and not for enhanced light output. Mercury vapor lamps also anticipated the fluorescent lamp in their incorporation of a ballast to maintain a constant current.

Cooper-Hewitt had not been the first to use mercury vapor for illumination, as earlier efforts had been mounted by Way, Rapieff, Arons, and Bastian and Salisbury. Of particular importance was the mercury vapor lamp invented by Küch and Retschinsky in Germany . The lamp used a smaller bore bulb and higher current operating at higher pressures. As a consequence of the current, the bulb operated at a higher temperature which necessitated the use of a quartz bulb. Although its light output relative to electrical consumption was better than that of other sources of light, the light it produced was similar to that of the Cooper-Hewitt lamp in that it lacked the red portion of the spectrum, making it unsuitable for ordinary lighting. Due to difficulties in sealing the electrodes to the quartz, the lamp had a very short life. [10]

The next step in gas-based lighting took advantage of the luminescent qualities of neon , an inert gas that had been discovered in 1898 by isolation from the atmosphere. Neon glowed a brilliant red when used in Geissler tubes. [11] By 1910, Georges Claude , a Frenchman who had developed a technology and a successful business fo
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