First Sperm

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First Sperm

The Surprising Birthplace of the First Sperm Bank
"Children will be taken from their mothers at birth, as one takes eggs from a hen. The sex instinct will be eradicated. Procreation will be an annual formality like the renewal of a ration card. We shall abolish the orgasm. Our neurologists are at work upon it now. There will be no loyalty, except loyalty towards the Party. There will be no love, except the love of Big Brother."
A champion bull having his semen collected. (Reuters)
What happened when "fatherhood after death" was proved possible
In a country scandalized and outraged so easily, the sperm bank has been naturalized. To say one works at a sperm bank would cause no more of a commotion than to say one works at an investment bank, surely.
There had to be a first sperm bank, and those early bankers felt the excitement and fear of the new.
The year was 1952. They were two doctors in Iowa. And they had figured out how to freeze sperm, thaw it back to active life, and use it to help families to conceive.
The year after they began, a nationwide poll found 28 percent of Americans approved of artificial insemination. That winter, three babies born from thawed sperm were born.
If at first Iowa seems like a surprising place for the technique to get its start, consider this: humans are animals, too, and Iowa was a hotbed of animal research, particularly in the realm of dairy cows, which farmers had been artificially inseminating since the 1930s.
The bull-semen market was already large—and by the early '50s, up to three-quarters of breeders were using sperm from champion bulls. There was a big incentive for researchers to experiment with ways of spreading champion sperm around as widely and for as long as possible. Plus, with bulls, the stakes were lower.
The idea of assisted reproduction in humans elicited fear and skepticism. Such technologies weren't yet seen as a tool that would enhance reproductive choices, but as a possible threat that might be wielded by the state.
Consider how writer George Orwell imagined the future in Nineteen Eighty-Four :
While Orwell and others may have worried about the social implications of reproductive technologies for humans, animal researchers were celebrating the genetic improvement of their herds as reflected in better milk production. It might have been unnatural, but it wasn't unholy.
So farm researchers became the leading edge of biological research into reproduction. And one thing they'd discovered was simple and amazing: sperm are rugged little biological machines that will always, no matter where and no matter what, look for an egg to fertilize.
By the early 1950s, British scientists had successfully frozen sperm and inseminated a cow, leading to the birth of a little calf they named Frosty .
And it was about this time that a graduate student named Jerome Sherman began tinkering with freezing his own sperm, "testing freezing protocols in search of a technique that would maximize the percentage of viable sperm," according to Northeastern law professor and historian of science Kara Swanson's fascinating paper, The Birth of the Sperm Bank , from which this account is largely drawn.
There were three main variables that Sherman optimized by building on existing work in animals: how slowly to cool down or heat up the sperm, how much semen to use, and what kinds of additives to mix into the solution.
It's not hard to test for viability, after all. After thawing out the sperm, Sherman could simply look at them under a microscope and count how many were moving well. To this day, visual inspection remains the dominant way of evaluating sperm quality.
Sherman had been more focused on freezing kidney tissue as part of his academic work, but after meeting Raymond Bunge, a urologist out to make a name for himself, his sperm-freezing hobby became his actual scholarly job.
Their first paper together describes a technique that seemed to keep the sperm swimming. Add some glycerol—a sugary chemical sometimes used in low-fat cookies —then slowly bring down the temperature. They published their findings in the Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine .
By the time the paper came out, three women had been inseminated with the previously frozen sperm. Bunge was on the staff at Iowa's fertility clinic, and so within months of Sherman's experiments beginning, the duo had real patients on whom they could test the new procedure.
By July, three pregnancies were in progress: they were to be the first children conceived with sperm that had been frozen and thawed. The two scientists had quickly translated animal breeding science into human reproductive medicine.
They tried to publish the results in the journal Science , the most prestigious American publication, but we're turned down until "the products of the conception have been observed." That is to say, they'd proven that frozen sperm could fertilize an egg and cause a pregnancy, but they didn't really know if the freezing process would do something unexpected in the reproductive process. In other words, they weren't sure how the babies would turn out. They X-rayed the fetal skeletons—a common procedure at the time—and everything seemed okay.
So they sent their paper to Nature in Britain, where it was accepted. The article appeared in October 1953. The related press release was titled, "Women Pregnant by Frozen Human Sperm."
That announcement eventually caught the attention of the New York Times , among others. The Times noted that it was an unprecedented event, but that "frozen cells have been used widely in animal husbandry," and that prize bull semen had been "flown as far as Argentina."
Back in Iowa, as the researchers waited for the first baby to be born, letters began to pour in. Bunge recalls receiving notes from people who called him "a scientific monster, un-Christian, and a disgrace to medicine."
In late December, the first baby arrived. At first all seemed well, but soon the baby was found to be blind in one eye. Then the child started having seizures. Bunge wrote to colleagues all over the country trying to determine if the frozen sperm had played a role in the problems. After several months, the diagnosis came in: Toxoplasmosis, a parasite the mother contracted during pregnancy. (Pregnant women today are cautioned to avoid cat's litter boxes and gardening to prevent exposure to the parasite.) In their paper about the frozen-sperm children—the others were born shortly thereafter—all of them were were described as normal.
Bunge, at least, was put off by the negative attention that the work drew, especially after a sensationalistic article ran in the local Cedar Rapids Gazette (Headline: "Fatherhood After Death Has Now Been Proved Possible.") It wasn't easy pioneering new reproductive technologies in the heartland. Some sperm was kept frozen at the University of Iowa for years afterward, but large-scale use of it or its sale to consumers never developed.
Sherman remained enthusiastic. He moved on to the University of Arkansas and was great promoter of cryobiology and reproductive technology. Despite bad publicity and continuing problems with frozen sperm, the process gradually became normalized as more and more babies were born with their aid.
Social acceptance came in part with the emergence of HIV in the mid-1980s. Because HIV infections sometimes took months to show up on the tests of the time, doctors realized they could effectively quarantine sperm by freezing them, giving them time to retest donors for HIV before using that sperm.
Looking back at the Cedar Gazette article and others, what was most fascinating to people at the time wasn't that sperm might be donated, sold, and bought, but that fathering a child might be possible after death. While the possibility of posthumous conception remains with us— and even went before the Supreme Court —it is no longer the focus in thinking about fertilization treatments. The really wild possibilities have never come to pass. And although commercial sperm banks advertise certain genetic traits, there is no library of Great Men to choose from. Humans are not dairy cattle and we do not have anyone optimizing us for production, or anything else.
Instead of using assisted reproductive technologies as Orwell (or Aldous Huxley) imagined, we've deployed them in line with the values of freedom and autonomy, not improvement and optimization. We've used assisted reproductive technology to extend the possibilities of parenthood to gay, lesbian, and single people under the banner of reproductive choice.
But it did not have to be this way, and it's important to remember that.
"Assisted reproductive technologies demand as much social as technological innovation to make sense of the biological and social relationships that [assisted reproductive technologies] forge and deny," anthropologist Charis Thompson has noted . That is to say, technologies like sperm banking, artificial insemination, and in-vitro fertilization themselves contained multiple possibilities, and it was how they unfolded in our culture that prevented the totalitarian future our ancestors feared.
"The technology that enables today’s sperm banks was developed in the 1950s," Northeastern's Swanson writes . "What has changed in the intervening half century is the legal, social, and political context for using frozen semen, not human biology."

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How sperm meets egg: a journey from production to fertilization
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How sperm meets egg: a journey from production to fertilization

By Emilio Gómez Sánchez B.Sc., Ph.D. (senior embryologist).
By Ricardo Navarro Martín M.D., M.Sc., B.Sc. (gynecologist).
By Andrea Rodrigo B.Sc., M.Sc. (embryologist).
By Andrea Rodrigo B.Sc., M.Sc. (embryologist).
By Andrea Rodrigo B.Sc., M.Sc. (embryologist).
By Andrea Rodrigo B.Sc., M.Sc. (embryologist).
By Andrea Rodrigo B.Sc., M.Sc. (embryologist).
By Andrea Rodrigo B.Sc., M.Sc. (embryologist).
Bachelor's Degree in Biotechnology from the Polytechnic University of Valencia. Master's Degree in Biotechnology of Human Assisted Reproduction from the University of Valencia along with the Valencian Infertility Institute (IVI). Postgraduate course in Medical Genetics. More information about Andrea Rodrigo
Bachelor's Degree in Biology from the University of Seville. PhD in Biology from the University of Valencia. Large experience as an Embryologist Specialized in Assisted Reproduction. Currently, he is the IVF Lab Director of Tahe Fertilidad. More information about Emilio Gómez Sánchez
Graduated in Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences by the University of Valencia (UV) and specialized in Assisted Reproduction by the University of Alcalá de Henares (UAH) in collaboration with Ginefiv and in Clinical Genetics by the University of Alcalá de Henares (UAH). More information about Marta Barranquero Gómez
Doctor Ricardo Navarro Martín is a specialist gynecologist in Assisted Reproduction with extensive experience. He is also an associate professor in the Department of Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics at the University of Zaragoza. More information about Ricardo Navarro Martín
PhD in Biochemistry, University of Bristol, UK, specialising in DNA : protein intereactions. BSc honours degree in Molecular Biology, Univerisity of Bristol. Translation and editing of scientific and medical literature.
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Many wonder what the sperm ´s journey is like from ejaculation to fertilization. The ultimate goal of a sperm is to fertilize the egg cell.
However, the journey of the sperm to get to the egg is not an easy one. To reach the egg cell, the sperm has to go through a long and difficult journey that can take from thirty minutes to several hours .
For this reason, fertilization needs a large number of motile spermatozoa for at least one of them to be able to overcome all barriers. Firstly for the sperm to get to the egg, and then to fertilize the egg.
Provided below is an index with the 7 points we are going to expand on in this article.
Colloquially,the path to fertilization we understand as a race in which only the best sperm will be able to reach the finish line and win the prize. Effectively, it is something like this: many spermatozoa start the race, but only one will fertilize the egg.
The route of the sperm to the egg can be divided into two major stages:
It should not be forgotten that during these two phases of the journey the sperm meet certain obstacles. To follow, we discuss what they are.
It takes about 90 days for spermatozoa to develop and acquire the necessary maturation before they can be expelled in an ejaculation.The birth of spermatozoa takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. They subsequently pass to the epididymis.
The seminiferous tubules are the internal structures of the testicle where sperm are made. The epididymis is a long structure that connects the testicle and the vas deferens.
At the moment of intercourse, a large quantity of sperm (about 250 million) leave the epididymis and pass through the vas deferens and the urethra. Along the way, the sperm are bathed in fluids released from the seminal vesicles and the prostate. In this way, the semen, the mix of sperm and fluids, is formed.
The main function of these seminal fluids is to make is possible for the sperm to enter into the vagina. Sperm will shoot out of the urethra through the penis until they enter the female reproductive tract , specifically the vagina.
During this journey from the testicle to the outside, the sperm acquire the correct shape and structure to allow fertilization of the egg. The changes that occur at this final stage of sperm maturation are:
If you wish to continue reading information about what the spermatozoon cell is like, we suggest you visit this article: How are spermatazoa formed
In the process of ejaculation, sperm cells leave the man and enter the vagina. This is where the sperm cells begin the second part of their journey to fertilization.
During this second part of the journey the sperm again encounter an large number of obstacles. These obstacles and barriers can hinder the sperms arrival at the Fallopian tubes, where the egg is waiting.
There is a distance of between 15 and 18 cm and time is of the essence. Sperm cannot afford to delay, since the egg, once it has left the ovary (i.e., after ovulation ), has a half-life of about 24 hours. The survival time of the egg is short compared to that of the sperm. Sperm can live between 2 and 5 days in the female reproductive tract.
After ejaculation, the race of the sperm cells begins. It is a race not only of speed but also of endurance . Defective sperm and/or those with poor motility will fall by the wayside.
Some obstacles, or barriers, encountered by sperm are as follows:
However, it is not all difficulties in the journey of the sperm. The egg tries to pave the way for the sperm by releasing molecules and sending signals. The fallopian tubes and uterus exert a suction force through rhythmic contractions and the cervical mucus becomes less dense allowing the sperm to swim better.
For its part, the seminal fluid that accompanies the sperm neutralizes the pH and provides sugars to the sperm. This fluid also serves as a protective shield against the woman´s white blood cells.
Once the vaginal, cervical and uterine barriers have been overcome, we encounter the narrowest part of the course: the uterotubal junction . Only a few thousand of the average 250 million spermatozoa in freshly ejaculated semen reach this point.
Along the way, the strongest spermatozoa, i.e. those that have been able to overcome the female obstacles, acquire an extraordinary ability: the ability to fertilize . This is known as sperm hyperactivation . From this moment on, its tail moves with much more force and energy, allowing a vigorous movement that helps it arrive at the egg.
Once they reach the fallopian tubes, many sperm remain attached to the tube walls, exhausted and unable to continue their journey.
At this point, few sperm are left in the race, as the vast majority have been lost along the way. Of the few dozen sperm that remain before the egg's watchful eye, only one will make it through the thick doorway to the egg: the zona pellucida.
The chosen sperm, the strongest and most capable one, upon contact with the zona pellucida, initiates the so-called acrosome reaction .
As mentioned above, when the most able sperm has reached the egg, the acrosome reaction takes place. This is the release of the contents of the acrosome, which is composed of a series of enzymes. The purpose of this enzymatic release is to weaken the zona pellucida of the ovum and facilitate penetration.
The acrosome is a structure located in the head of the sperm. It serves as a reservoir for enzymes and other substances that the sperm needs to pass through the zona pellucida.
This reaction "wakes up" the egg, which releases cortical granules , organelles that prevent any other sperm from penetrating. It is as if the ovum plants a flag indicating to the rest of the spermatozoa around it that it has already been conquered by the winning spermatozoa and, therefore, that the doors of its kingdom are closed.
Once the sperm penetrates the oocyte, their two nuclei fuse. This is what we know as fertilization . If you want to know the details about how the sperm enters the egg and how the new being is formed, you can read this article: The steps of fertilization in humans.
Spermatogenesis is the process whereby male reproductive cells are formed, from the immature ones, spermatogonia, until the mature ones, spermatozoa. This complicated process occurs within the seminiferous tubule in the testis and takes about 64-72 days.
Once spermatozoa (sperm cells) have been produced, they leave the testis and travel to the epididymis, where they will acquire the necessary motility in a process that lasts 10 days approximately. Spermatozoa will be stored in the epididymis until they are expelled with ejaculation. When ejaculation starts, sperm travel through the vas deferends and m
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