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Fichtelberg where can I buy cocaine

Transnational crime and justice will characterize the 21st century in same way that traditional street crimes dominated the 20th century. In the Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice , Philip Reichel and Jay Albanese bring together top scholars from around the world to offer perspectives on the laws, crimes, and criminal justice responses to transnational crime. This concise, reader-friendly handbook is organized logically around four major themes: the problem of transnational crime; analysis of specific transnational crimes; approaches to its control; and regional geographical analyses. Each comprehensive chapter is designed to be explored as a stand-alone topic, making this handbook an important textbook and reference tool for students and practitioners alike. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the adjudication of alleged violations of international criminal law, focusing primarily on prosecuting offenders but also discussing alternative forms of adjudication. Individuals can be prosecuted for international crimes numerous ways, each representing different Have you created a personal profile? Login or create a profile so that you can save clips, playlists and searches. Navigating away from this page will delete your results. Please save your results to 'My Self-Assessments' in your profile before navigating away from this page. Go to my saved videos. All search filters on the page have been cleared. Your search has been saved. Summary Contents Subject index Transnational crime and justice will characterize the 21st century in same way that traditional street crimes dominated the 20th century. Aaron Fichtelberg. Read next. More like this. Sage Recommends We found other relevant content for you on other Sage platforms. Please sign into your institution before accessing your profile. Need help? Contact Sage. With institutional access I can: View or download all content my institution has access to. To enhance your experience on our site, Sage stores cookies on your computer. By continuing to use this site you consent to receive cookies. Learn more.

Adjudicating International Crimes

Fichtelberg where can I buy cocaine

By using our site, you agree to our collection of information through the use of cookies. To learn more, view our Privacy Policy. To browse Academia. This article attempts to provide an overview by means of a situational review, using available information in the public domain, of illicit drug demand, supply and cross-border drug smuggling in South Africa. Accordingly, the data was supplemented by means of media analysis of reported cases of drug smuggling, semi-structured interviews with drug trafficking experts and a literature study. Resulting from this, findings and recommendations were formulated. By making the deduction that drug demand and drug supply are interrelated it was ultimately concluded that drug smuggling would continue as long as there is a demand for drugs, which is then fed by readily available drug supply routes to and from the country. From media reports analysed, cocaine, methamphetamine and heroin were the drugs most frequently smuggled in and out of South Africa. Of these three main drugs smuggled, cocaine and methamphetamine were smuggled in the largest quantities. The quantities of heroin found in the possession of arrested South African drug mules were insignificantly small. This contradicts treatment centre data, which were analysed that indicated heroin and methamphetamine users were almost double in numbers in comparison to cocaine users being treated at centres. It is projected that the drug demand in South Africa will continue to increase if the drug supply routes and drug smuggling operations by syndicates are not addressed more firmly by the authorities. Keywords: Drug demand and supply; trafficking of illicit drugs; illicit cross-border smuggling; organised crime syndicates involvement. In the Western Cape Province of South Africa, illicit drug trade, substance abuse and gangsterism continue to produce deleterious physical, emotional and psychological effects on residents in the Cape Flats, 1 as well as contributing to high crime rates, violence, sexual abuse, injury, traffic accidents, and increasing dysfunctional family and community life. The preponderance of both governmental and private drug abuse clinics and counselling centres in the Western Cape, signals the seriousness of the problem in this locale. Yet the drug problem in the Western Cape is reported to be worsening and has led to substance abuse being regarded as a major health and social problem. This article derives from a qualitative study of a community in the Cape Flats. Rich data was elicited from Journal of illicit economies and development, Asian Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, South African societies have been characterized by the prolific incidence of illicit drug use in recent times. The paper attempts to examine the legislations implemented on the use of illicit drugs in South Africa. The study adopts a review of the literature to identify and describe the most common illicit drugs used around South Africa communities, placing emphasis on the policies developed by the South African government in combating these situations. The research follows a critical discussion on the issues associated with drug use, its causes, as well as its effects on humans and the environment. The study recommends relevant initiatives to combat all intricacies associated with drug use within the country. This approach will be appropriate in facilitating a clear-cut understanding of the possible remedies to quench the burning flame of illicit drug use across a broad range of South African communities. West Africa region has seized to be the traditional warehouse and transit routes for illicit drugs from the Andeans stable to America and European drug markets. The fear is that, the region may turn into theatre of conflict, crimes, violence and lawlessness which is even more favourable condition for the trade. Most scholars and extant literatures has focused on poor economies weak rule of law and corruption as the endogenous causative factors that has made the region vulnerability and flourishing of illicit drug trade, but importantly, deliberately overlooked the exogenous underpinnings such as high demand for drugs, and the vicious, desperate and determined traffickers to feed on this demand. The West and Europe comes to terms with reality, take responsibility, and develop a genuine and pragmatic approach to the issue of drug abuse without which the problem will persist for to eternity. One key area is refocusing on the current repressive drug control policy is imperative to a more humane approach is ideal. Caring for the needy and monitoring of children from onset and giving them proper training - the gap which has that led to the culture of drug abuse is important. Abstract- West Africa region has seized to be the traditional warehouse and transit routes for illicit drugs from the Andeans stable to America and European drug markets. The West and Europe comes to terms with reality, take responsibility, and develop a gen The Politics of Identity: Emerging Indigeneity, Paris 1 , Interpretacja mitu o Demeter i Korze-Persefonie w postfeministycznych retellingach new adult, Log in with Facebook Log in with Google. Remember me on this computer. Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link. Need an account? Click here to sign up. Drugs in Southern Africa: business as usual Laurent Laniel. Illicit drug use in South Africa: Findings from a national population-based survey Shandir Ramlagan. Africa and the drugs trade revisited Margarita Dimova. South Africa in particular is seen as an ideal arena for the illicit drug trade, because of its developed transportation infrastructures, modern international telecommunication and banking systems and porous borders Central Drug Authority CDA , Crime Analyst, Pretoria. Email: dejageranjelee gmail. Research Professor. Email: aminnaar unisa. In the process of growing the illicit drug trade, the drug trafficking syndicates have increasingly targeted South Africans to smuggle drugs, knowingly or unknowingly, between countries Tsotetsi, 1. Media reports, both nationally and internationally, have highlighted the increase in the use of South Africans as drug mules Tsotetsi, 1. Essentially, there are two broad domains of the illicit drug phenomenon: drug supply and drug demand, both of which are interrelated. According to Ryan 1 , if drugs are in demand they will be supplied to fulfil market needs. Therefore, the drug supply to a country, as well as the routes used to smuggle drugs, will depend on the specific drug that is in demand in that specific country Zilney, There are various modi operandi involved in smuggling drugs across borders Lee, np. These include illicit transit or the licit i. In illicit transit, the drugs are smuggled across borders using private or unscheduled vehicles as the mode of conveying them. In licit transit, drugs are hidden in regular cargo or baggage on flights or by means of parcels through postal services Lee, np. For example, specific high risk flights, suspicious behaviour such as unattended or unidentified luggage on long flights. Based on such collected information, particularly on the modi operandi of the drug syndicates, by law enforcement agencies, both maritime harbours and airport security is continuously being reviewed and enhanced. Internationally airports and seaports are now increasingly being equipped with sophisticated container and baggage scanners, while postal distribution centres that handle international mail, also regularly screen packages European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction EMCDDA , 9. These descriptions are then followed by a basic explanation of the trafficking routes used, from production, transit and arrival in primary markets EMCDDA, 8. By comparing drug abuse trends, drug crime statistics and media reports on the drug market in South Africa, an attempt was made to identify the nature and extent of drug trafficking specifically related to drugs being smuggled by South African drug mules. The basis of this article is the analysis of treatment centre data, media reports and relevant available literature on drug trafficking and smuggling in South Africa. Other documents analysed included media reports and articles on the topic and data on drug-related arrests, as reflected in publications by the South African Police Service SAPS. In addition, international literature on the broad topic was consulted. However, overall, there is a distinct dearth of consolidated in-depth information on the specific aspects of drug supply, drug demand, trafficking and smuggling, as well as the involvement of organised crime throughout the whole drug market in South Africa, other than general overviews contained in reports such as the annual UN World Drug Reports. The success of the market, according to Kilmer and Hoorens 20 , is therefore determined by the drug availability and the quantity of the drug demand. The steady increase in drug demand has resulted in the increase in drug prices resulting in lucrative criminal drug trafficking businesses Kelley, There is minimal data on the cost of transporting, distributing and selling of drugs in consumer countries. Information on the average price paid for drugs, combined with information on how much is consumed in that market drug demand , can provide insights into what is happening with the supply of the drug. Therefore, in order to ultimately try and determine the drug supply to a country, in this case through drug mules specifically, it is important that an understanding or estimation of the drug demand be given. Accordingly, the current drug demand in South Africa, treatment centre data and other institutional data within the South African domain, were all examined. Consequently, this raised the question as to whether there is a profitable drug market in South Africa, since most high-end drugs such as heroin and cocaine, are not produced and grown in South Africa Gelbrand, As a point of departure, an historical overview of the drug trafficking phenomenon in South Africa is provided. In the early s, the introduction of the international rave culture in South Africa, led to an increase in the use of the so-called 'club drugs' ecstasy and LSD Leggett et al, 6. After the disbandment of international isolation after , an influx of chemicals used in the manufacturing of drugs was observed in the South African drug markets. With international trade to South Africa also increasing after , drugs such as cocaine and heroin were introduced into the South African drug markets Leggett et al, 6. During the apartheid years and due to stringent border controls as a counterinsurgency measure and limited international trade, South Africa was semi-excluded from exploitation by international drug syndicates. But in the mids the slow influx of Nigerian crime and drug smuggling syndicates started to occur. These Nigerian syndicates started to engage in drug trafficking, using South Africa as a strategic transit area for the trafficking of drugs to major drug markets in Europe Gelbrand, However, Gelbrand , states that the apartheid era left a large number of institutional weaknesses such as outdated or inadequate laws for complex crimes, inadequate financial regulations, weak judicial and police institutions and after the relaxing of the previous counter-insurgency-relatedborder controls. At the end of the previous century, Minnaar 12 already emphasised that since , South Africa was increasingly being used as a transit country for drugs such as mandrax, ecstasy, heroin and cocaine. With apartheid ending, an evolution in the drug market was noted in South Africa. According to the UNODC 5 , it is evident that when the demographic profile of a given society changes, drug use behaviour may also change accordingly. South Africa is now fully globalised in the range of drugs available for consumption. These basic economic principles can be broadly outlined as follows: when a commodity drugs is in demand it will be supplied Fichtelberg, This, therefore, creates a criminogenic market, which is defined by Minnaar 2 , as a market structure where there is an unsaturated demand for and ready availability of illegal goods. SACENDU monitors the trends in alcohol and other drug use from specialist treatment programmes, as well as the associated consequences thereof and releases this information on a six-monthly basis. The project is an alcohol and other drug AOD sentinel surveillance system. Again, the exception to this ranking was the Western Cape with methamphetamine Tik at 35 percent versus the 19 percent for cannabis use in that province. In addition, the Western Cape in fact provides 87 percent of the total use of methamphetamine in South Africa. Lesser proportions indicated as primary drug use being the 12 percent for heroin and four percent for cocaine. It must, however, be noted that these percentages are only indicative of drug use by patients being treated at the SANCA centres and therefore only of likely trends and not numbers of actual users of the different substances abused by drug addicts on the streets. Alcohol dependency, according to the SACENDU reports for the period indicate significant decreases starting at the end of and continuing up to the end of Cannabis usage has stayed significant throughout this period, even with a dip in they continued to grow through to years. Although alcohol remains the most commonly abused substance drug in South Africa nationally, the research on which this article is based focused only on specific illicit drugs related to the phenomenon of drug trafficking. Factors such as high unemployment rates, high costs of living, insufficient border controls and a lack of an awareness of the dangers of drug abuse, all render South Africa an attractive market for drug traffickers and transnational organised crime Grove, 5. Local and international drug syndicates have exploited corrupt South African officials and porous borders, in order to smuggle drugs Minnaar, Profits from the drug market ensure systematic corruption of the social and economic network in a country Alvarez, The huge amount of money flowing to impoverished communities can be effectively used to bribe or coerce entire communities and corrupt governments Alvarez, ILLICIT DRUG ECONOMY The effects of massive drug transactions can range from economic prosperity and enhanced employment opportunities to environmental degradation, distorted economies and social structures, militarised societies, troubled health care systems, subverted governments, national value systems and terrorised populations Tullis, 4. Despite the licit economy, drugs also play a significant role as a form of currency in other crimes. An example would be poached rhino horn that is exchanged for drugs Van Wyk, When a drug policy restricts drug supply by means of arresting, detaining and eventual imprisoning a higher number of drug dealers, the drug supply to the country is affected. In other words the consequent reduction in the quantity of drugs sold on the market leads to an increase in the market price of drugs Caulkins et al, 1. If drug dealers are arrested and incarcerated, an effect may be seen in the reduction or the stabilising of drug prices and allied drug usage increases Caulkins et al, 2. Demand is reduced when the price of a commodity goes up. In other words higher prices lead to lower consumption. In contrast, in the drug market, users are usually not dissuaded from their drug habit by price increases. In the longer term, however, if prices rise markedly overall, consumption will eventually decline since dependent users face increasing difficulties to finance their habit UNODC, If prices fall, purchases may, in fact, go up increase of sales. Recreational users tend to react quicker to such price fluctuations i. In addition, dealers may have become more efficient over time, finding ways to reduce the financial and non-financial costs associated with drug dealing. The quantity of illicit drugs purchased, the degree of purity, the nationality of the sellers and buyers, the trust relationship between the seller and the buyer and the method of payment are all variables that must be taken into account when trying to determine drug market prices European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Drug traffickers make provision for expenses other than drug costs, employee salaries and equipment rentals. Violence in drug markets is quite common, but there are associated costs of establishing a reputation for violence syndicates accept such reputational costs since the value of deterrence is in the long run in fact a cost saving. Sellers may also use violence against more vulnerable targets e. Smugglers therefore adjust their prices to fit the local market, cutting back on profit if need be Adler, Prices of drugs are also dependent on the particular style and reputation of the smuggler Adler, Comparing the data provides an indication of whether the prices increased or decreased. With the exception of cannabis for the year , all four drugs have seen increases in their prices over the period to Although the extent of the drug phenomenon and drug market is difficult to determine through available literature, from the above it can be deduced that there is an active drug market in South Africa. Drugs are therefore supplied to this market. Every drug used, by either a recreational user or an addict, supports and feeds the transnational drug trafficking industry South African Broadcasting Corporation SABC , a. Therefore, it can be stated that the drug market or drug demand will remain interchangeable with the drug supply, in other words they are inexorably linked to each other in a symbiotic relationship Ryan, 1. The regulation and criminalisation of drug trafficking, as an international crime, was only implemented within the last century Fichtelberg, While there is an almost fixed hierarchy in drug markets, there are well-defined roles in the supply chain to drug markets regarding responsibilities and associated risks and rewards for each position in the chain of supply. Drug smuggling, according to all respondents interviewed in this study is an organised crime activity comprising of different groups and networks working together in the supply country, the transit country and the user or distribution country. Criminal syndicates will use all and any routes available, legitimately or illegitimately. There are numerous organised crime syndicates throughout South Africa. Furthermore, within the greater Johannesburg area, there are specific drug locations in and around the airport such as Benoni, Boksburg and Edenvale, areas that seem to house the syndicates. According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drugs Addiction 9 , maritime security, as well as security at airports has been enhanced through information on the modi operandi of syndicates involved in smuggling contraband. Globally airports and sea ports are now equipped with sophisticated container scanners while postal distribution centres, handling international mail, regularly screen packages EMCDDA, 9. In an effort to detect drug mules who smuggle drugs, full-body scans, X-rays of people and luggage, ion scanners that can detect minute particles of illicit substances and sniffer dogs are also standard use at ports of entry all over the world EMCDDA, 9. However, this equipment is still largely dependent upon the human element in their operations and is therefore still vulnerable to elements such as corruption and untrained personnel. It should also be noted, that South Africa is an international hub, therefore the quantities of goods and number of passengers coming in and out of the country is huge and this makes it physically not possible to scan all people and all goods lack of capacity and capabilities Respondent 8. While only cannabis is cultivated in South Africa in significant quantities, it is also grown in neighbouring countries for export into South Africa and then also transited from South Africa to other international markets. Although drugs are smuggled from producer countries to transit and eventually user countries, Respondent 3 is of the opinion that all countries surrounding producer countries are used as transit countries to the user countries. Accordingly, a small user market can, as a result, be created. Cannabis is usually cultivated in mountainous or otherwise inaccessible areas and a large number of rural families supplement their cash income with cannabis production UNODC, 1. There are organised crime syndicates that buy up bags of cannabis in the cultivation areas and then transport them to Gauteng consumers in this region being firstly miners and then youth in townships and suburbs and to the Cape Flats for distribution by the local criminal gangs to consumers all over Cape Town. Compressed cannabis in one-kilogram blocks from Swaziland and Lesotho and as far afield as Malawi — which is considered to grow the best quality cannabis in Africa is exported primarily to the lucrative markets in the United Kingdom, Belgium and the Netherlands Respondent 3. In addition, it is also an important area for heroin consignments destined for countries in Southern Africa notably Mauritius , countries in Europe and Australia. West African syndicates dominate the smuggling of heroin, although there is a significant level of Pakistani involvement in East Africa. Heroin consignments, according to the INCB b: 48 , are primarily smuggled by courier and in air cargo. Figure 6 illiterates the routes used to smuggle heroin INCB, b: Some of the cocaine is then smuggled on to Mauritius and Australia. Since cocaine is produced in the Andes mountain regions of South America, for drug production purposes, different individual groups operate in countries such as Peru, Columbia and Bolivia. Transporters, also operate from the surrounding countries such as Venezuela, Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Chile Respondent 3. Methaqualone Mandrax , Methcathinone and Methamphetamine smuggling In South Africa, significant quantities of synthetic drugs, notably methaqualone Mandrax , methcathinone and methamphetamine, continue to be illicitly manufactured and are primarily abused by the local population INCB, b: The main reason for this is that these drugs are synthetic and therefore do not require an organic base or depend on agricultural factors Fichtelberg, They can also be manufactured cheaply in the consuming country with pharmaceutical products that can be acquired locally Fichtelberg, In order to ensure effective drug smuggling through the routes identified above, the drug trafficking syndicates in South Africa make use of a network of corrupted South African officials that protect international drug smugglers and foreigners operating in South Africa Minnaar, The next section will examine the relationship between drug supply and smuggling, technology and corruption. Drug sales are conducted via cell phones that are discarded after one use Naim, Instant messaging, online chat rooms and webmail accounts ease the communication between drug sales and recruitment Naim, The drug traffickers also make use of hackers and encryption software to infiltrate sophisticated government sites to protect their form of communication Naim, According to Tullis 16 , technology creates a safe way for traffickers to launder vast quantities of money. According to Respondent 7, it is also important to consider the role of virtual currencies in organised crime. With virtual currencies it makes it easier for individuals and small groups to operate syndicated crimes, thus eliminating the old traditional hierarchal way of committing crimes. Respondent 1 and 2 also emphasised the use of social networks such as Facebook in identifying potential drug mules. The syndicates or specifically the recruiters will recruit people who are emotionally vulnerable, either through social sites such as chat rooms, dating sites or Facebook groups of support Respondent 1. Respondent 2 was further of the opinion that the syndicates use recruiters in banking houses who identify people who are in debt and then recruit them. In , the SAPS conducted a survey that demonstrated the existence of organised crime groups operating in South Africa. Ninety-two of which were primarily focused on the international smuggling of drugs. In the latter areas drug trafficking groups have fought ongoing and long lasting, often violent, battles, over control and shares of the local drug market UNODC, This was a clear indication that organised crime was and is still growing rapidly in South Africa State Security Agency, 5. In terms of specific drug-related crimes, there is no clear indication on what constitutes drug-related crimes in the South African context. The crime statistics for the period , as illustrated in Figure 9 below, indicate an increase in drug-related crime SAPS, SAPS, As can be seen from Figure 7 there has been an exponential and continuous increase from through to March Figure 8 shows that the Western Cape by far leading the way , Kwazulu-Natal and Gauteng remain the most prominent provinces reporting drug-related crime for the period SAPS, The social and emotional profile of the youth in South Africa also changed dramatically after , especially when compared to the emotional needs of youth prior to According to all the respondents interviewed, the drug demand in South Africa has definitely grown exponentially over the last five years. In order, therefore, to determine whether there was a growth in drug demand in South Africa, the number of drug-related crime arrests, drug treatment statistics and prices of drugs were compared. Treatment admission data was used as a basis to determine how much drugs are available and the number of drug users in South Africa. This was problematic, as only a relatively small percentage of the drug abuser population are arrested as indicated in the treatment centre data and therefore it is not a clear representation of the overall drug usage or drug demand in South Africa. This could have resulted in smaller amounts of drugs entering South Africa and thus fewer drugs being consumed or available for use in South Africa. Other drugs as identified, according to the treatment admission data in South Africa, as being in demand were heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine and mandrax. This data correlates with the data from the media analysis on drugs smuggled by South African drug mules. The media reports indicated that most of the South African drug mules were arrested in possession of cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin and cannabis. This, however, does not indicate that Mandrax was not smuggled. Mandrax is produced or manufactured in South Africa and Respondent 5 is of the opinion that syndicates are increasingly smuggling the chemicals used in the manufacturing of drugs such as Mandrax, into South Africa. This chemical smuggling is on the increase due to border officials who are not properly trained in chemical identification making it possible for chemical smuggling to go undetected Respondent 5. Respondent 3, in particular agreed with the trends noted above and stated that cannabis, methaqualone Mandrax , methamphetamine, cathinone, cocaine, heroin, amphetamine and other less known drugs such as ketamine, psilocybins, are problematic drugs in South Africa listed in terms of prominence. Drug abuse in South Africa, according to Respondent 3, is location, class, as well as ethnic, specific. Cocaine is destined for the upper class market and most prominent in areas considered upper class such as Sandton. Methamphetamine is established in the Western Cape but has spread to most of the provinces in South Africa as West Africans established the market. Illicit clandestine laboratories that have been discovered in especially Gauteng are also contributing to the demand for methamphetamine in Gauteng. Mandrax is mostly abused by the Indian and Coloured communities with a noted steady increase in use by black youths. The abuse of heroin and cannabis mixes known as home-grown drugs is growing in black townships all over South Africa, with Nigerian drug syndicates having created the market for them and subsequently aggressively expanding it Respondent 3. Another factor to consider in determining drug demand is the price of drugs. Kelley 17 and Fichtelberg , both refer to drugs as a commodity of profit, therefore a steady increase in drug demand can be reflected in the increase in drug prices resulting in lucrative criminal drug trafficking businesses. The effects of profits made from drug distribution can especially be seen in the gang wars on the Cape Flats. Gangs have the monopoly in most communities due to the profits that they make from drug sales. Not only are drugs a profitable commodity, but drugs are also used as a currency in their own right. Naim 76 , Van Wyk and Respondent 12, indicated that drugs have been used as currency barter mode of payment, i. The following factors, i. The deployment of the United States army in Afghanistan did have an effect on the heroin crops and heroin prices. The extraction from these areas is expected to cause a significant decrease in drug prices Respondent Furthermore, according to Wilson and Stevens np , the increase in price of specifically heroin and cocaine can also be attributed to the proximity of the production country versus the end consumer. No available data could be obtained from the SAPS indicating specific drug type arrests and therefore an overall percentage of percent increase for drug-related crime arrests was noted from the SAPS crime statistics between and SAPS, According to Caulkins et al, 1 , when an increase in incarceration is noted, the supply curve shifts up and to the left, increasing the market price and reducing the quantity of drugs sold in the market. When considering the data above and the overall increase in drug-related arrests, it can therefore be concluded that there was a possible increase in drug-related arrests for cocaine and heroin. The steady increase in drug demand can also be seen as stated by Kelley 17 as a result of the increase in the lucrative criminal drug trafficking businesses. Even though South Africa has experienced some evolution in the illicit drug market, it is still evident from the information obtained from the treatment centre data, media analysis and interviews conducted that South Africans are still favouring the more easily accessible drugs such as cannabis and home-grown synthetics such as methamphetamine for example, Tik and Cat. It is, however, difficult to quantify and confirm whether there has been an increase in drug abuse without data to support this. It can, however, be concluded that after an increase occurred in demand for illicit drugs in South Africa. Accurate data on this is, however, needed to conclude whether globalisation did have a negative impact specifically on drug availability in South Africa. Respondent 8 emphasised that it remains more profitable for South African syndicates to smuggle drugs in large commodities via ports of entry rather than using parcels or drug couriers to smuggle drugs. South Africa has ten international airports and eight seaports ports-of-entry with 4 kilometres of borderline — which is shared with six countries. It is because of the accessibility to South Africa that syndicates are using South Africa as a transhipment point of drugs to international drug markets in Europe and America INCB, In the continuing fight against illicit drugs, it would therefore be important to focus on the vulnerabilities of not only the syndicates but also the inadequacies and shortcomings of the policies that have been implemented. The revised South African National Drug Master Plan , based on the work of the Inter-Ministerial Committee on Alcohol and Substance Abuse, led by the Department of Social Development, sought to address the huge challenges facing the country around all aspects of substance abuse. The revision involved a relook at all relevant policies, legislation and strategies that aimed to reduce the supply and demand for alcohol and illicit drugs. In comparison with the National Drug Master Plan , the revised plan focused more on the delivery of evidence-based strategies designed to meet the defined needs of communities. One of these strategies being the development of individual community intervention plans for example the one developed for the Eldorado Park community on the East Rand in Gauteng. Hence the focus being the guiding and monitoring of the actions of individual government departments working to reduce the demand for and supply of drugs, as well as the harm associated with their use and abuse. A further important change in focus was the extensive work being done to improve treatment for addicts and other harm reduction measures. It also strengthens prevention, which is one of the most important focus areas of the master plan. This was under the assumption that while the lead department, for the drafting of the Drug Master Plan is the Department of Social Development that the fight to combat and prevent the actual trafficking and dealing in illicit drugs at street level was better left to the Justice Crime Prevention and Security Cluster JCPS. In other words, implementing a strictly law enforcement approach to preventing and thereby reducing supplies of illicit drugs not only entering the country stricter border controls and searches at ports of entry but also the internal trafficking to street-level markets and users. All these operations aimed to be implemented with an intelligence-led approach. When considering the history of Apartheid and the international influx of drugs into South Africa since , it can be presumed that South Africa has become an equal player in the world drug market. South Africa is therefore expected to have a fully globalised drug market, as well as a resulting increased drug demand. If the criminogenic market for drugs, as defined by Minnaar 2 as a market structure where there is an unsaturated demand for and ready availability of illegal goods, is not stopped, there will be an increase in drug availability since the profitability of the industry will be difficult to curb. Scholars such as Ryan and Gelbrand , hypothesised on the future of South Africa and drug trafficking and the evolution of the drug market in South Africa. Ryan 11 , hypothesised that South African gangsters will take over the local dealing of cocaine and heroin from the international syndicates such as those controlled by Nigerians. Such local syndicates will subsequently move up through the trafficking hierarchy. Eventually, South African trafficking syndicates, according to Ryan 11 , will be operating internationally. This takeover of the drug supply and distribution within South Africa will be categorised by ongoing violence between various syndicates and police since the syndicates will need to compete with other international syndicates and criminal organisations Ryan, Respondents 11 and 12 indicated that the gang violence noticed in recent years is a huge concern to the authorities. The gang violence, according to the respondents, can mainly be attributed to drug-dealing profits and therefore, predictions of increases and other developing trends, as made by the above respondents, can be seen as probable and very likely. On the other hand, predictions made by Gelbrand , concur with that of Ryan, by stating that the growing drug trafficking problem in South Africa will leave South Africa vulnerable for exploitation by international drug syndicates. The involvement of such syndicates will create money laundering, chemical production and distribution opportunities in South Africa. More syndicates are producing chemical drugs such as mandrax, since it is cheaper to smuggle chemicals than the finished product internationally Respondent 5. Most of the chemicals are regulated by the Medical Research Council as Schedule 6 medicines and most border officials have no idea what the recommended and allowed quantities are per person, making chemical smuggling a perfect avenue for criminal syndicates. Furthermore, the increase in abuse of pharmaceutical drugs has created a market for criminality in the pharmaceutical industry Respondent 8. From the above information, even with its limitations, and the overall research findings of the study, it is apparent that there is a need for more research, in order to determine if drugs smuggled into South Africa are smuggled for the South African drug market or to what extent the incoming drug supplies are merely in-transit and destined for other markets in Africa and elsewhere for example from South America onwards to the Far East Japan and Korea. In South Africa there is no accurate information on which drugs are available in the country. The responsibility of obtaining information on drug availability statistics are therefore largely placed on treatment centres. The data emanating from these centres often privately owned or run with grants from the state does not necessarily provide a clear indication of the drug market size or extent of supply and demand. WHO, NIDA through exchange of personnel, stimulating conference attendance, running regional workshops and increasing access to resources programme material, publications should be implemented by the government. From the respondents interviewed and academics such as Clutterbuck 4 , it is clear that organised crime syndicates will keep on smuggling drugs as long as drug addicts are prepared to pay for the drugs and the risks related to smuggling remain at the low end of the risk scale, coupled with the concomitant high profits associated with drug trafficking. Therefore, it is recommended that policies and initiatives be focused at raising the risks related to drug smuggling, including increasing the deterrence factor, by more focused targeting of the actual criminals, and thereby dealing with the social and societal problem of users to the relevant non-law enforcement agencies. A coca plant includes any plant related to the species of the Genus Erythroxylon, from, which is produced the drug cocaine UNODC, Opium is extracted from the seed pods of the opium poppy and contains several highly addictive narcotic alkaloid substances — besides the illicit drug heroin — such as morphine and codeine UNODC, Mandrax, is an ATS drug in the form of a pill that is crushed and then smoked using a pipe Zaga, This practice is, however, very dangerous as some of these condoms have burst in the stomachs of couriers, which led to their subsequent death Drugaware, Nyaope, a street drug, is a combination of a number of ingredients but usually consisting in varying proportions anti-retroviral drugs, milk powder, rat poison, bicarbonate of soda and pool cleaner, and is usually laced with a cheap form of heroin. It is commonly smoked with marijuana or sometimes tobacco. Nyaope use became noticed in in the Durban townships, and because it is much cheaper than cocaine and heroin, has subsequently become widespread in other impoverished townships in South Africa. One of the problems in combating and prosecuting the manufacturers, dealers and users has been the fact that it was, until , not defined or on the schedule list of illegal drugs of the Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act of Wheeling and dealing: An ethnography of an upper-level drug dealing and smuggling community. New York: Columbia University Press. Alvarez, G. Drug trafficking as a lethal regional threat in Central America. Caulkins, J. Can supply restrictions lower price? Violence, drug dealing and positional advantage. How illegal drugs enter an island country: Insights from interviews with incarcerated smugglers. Global Crime. Department of Social Development. Clutterbuck, R. Drugs, crime and corruption. London: Mackays of Chatham. Dada, S. Pilot project to describe and analyse local drug markets first phase final report: Illegal drug markets in Frankfurt, Milan and Portugal. A definition of 'drug mules' for use in a European context. Fichtelberg, A. Crime without borders: An introduction to international criminal justice. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Garcia, M. A theoretical approach: an exploratory analysis of higher level narcotraffickers of Latin American decent. Washington: Washington State University. Gelbrand, R. Drug trafficking in South Africa Pp Mills, eds. War and peace in Southern Africa: Crime, drugs, armies and trade. Washington: Brookings Institution Press. Global black market information. South Africa a huge link in drug network. Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for New York: United Nations Publications. Narcotic drugs: Estimated world requirements for , statistics for The report of the International Narcotics Control Board for Volume I: Drug and chemical control. Kelley, M. Reading on drugs and society: The criminal connection. United States of America: Pearson. Kilmer, B. Understanding illicit drug markets, supply reduction efforts, and drug-related crime in the European Union. Lee, G. Global drug enforcement: Practical investigation techniques. Leggett, T. The 3-metros study of drugs and crime in South Africa: Findings and policy implications. Implications for drug policy Chapter 5: np. In: Leggett, T Ed. Drugs and crime in South Africa: A study in three cities. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. Cocaine production and trafficking: What do we know? Policy Research Working Paper New York: The World Bank. Minnaar, A. A symbiotic relationship: Organized crime and corruption in South Africa. Durban, October. SA Crime Quarterly. Nyaope to be officially classified. Sowetan, 28 February. Naim, M. Illicit: How smugglers, traffickers and copycats are hijacking the global economy. SA high on list of drug traffickers. News 24, 4 January. National Director of Public Prosecutions. Annual Report, Pretoria: National Prosecuting Authority. Available at: www. Crime and safety report. Pearson, G. Middle market drug distribution. University of London: Home Office. Research Study Peltzer, K. Illicit drug use trends in South Africa. Medical Research Council. Reuter, P. Risk and prices: an economic analysis of drug enforcement. Crime and Justice. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Rotberg, R. War and peace in Southern Africa: crime, drugs, armies and trade. Ryan, T. Drugs, violence and governability in the future South Africa. Occasional Paper No Dead Cows: Part 1. Protocol on combating drugs. Mission statement. Primary substance of abuse. Crimestats, Cape Town. Gross domestic product: Storti, C. Globalisation and the price decline of illicit drugs. Nyaope info. The Naked Truth. Sugars; Woongah; Nyaope. National Drug Master Plan Pretoria: Government Printers. The International Narcotics Control Strategy. Drug and chemical control. Tsotetsi, S. South African young people and drug trafficking. Tullis, L. Unintended consequences: Illegal drugs and drug policies in nine countries. Colorado: Lynne Rienner. World Drug Report, Van Wyk, E. News24, 18 December. Venter, C. Drug abuse and drug smuggling in South Africa Pp. Wilson, L. Understanding drug markets and how to influence them. Report Zaga, S. Zilney, L. Drugs: policy, social costs, crime and justice. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Interviews: Respondent 1. Drug mule family support. Email interview. Respondent 2. Respondent 3. Respondent 4. Pretoria: 13 March. Respondent 5. Researcher in the Financial Intelligence Environment, eight years of experience. Pretoria: 20 March. Respondent 7. Financial crime analyst, eight years of experience within the Financial Intelligence Centre. Respondent 8. Organised crime expert, 26 years of experience within the South African Police Services. Pretoria: 18 March. Respondent 9. Narcotics drug investigation head, 12 years of experience in the South African Police Services. Respondent Criminal law expert, 13 years of experience within the South African Police civilian survives. Pretoria: 2 April. Crime analyst, eight years of experience within the intelligence environment. Pretoria: 27 February. Crime analyst, 23 years of experience within the intelligence environment. Situation ethics: exposition and application Question: Situation ethics: exposition and application tony irungu. Algo Trading Ricardo Piccolo. Ethnomythology: motyl 'worm' iurii mosenkis. Related topics Criminal Law.

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