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Official websites use. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial license , which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, so long as the resultant use is not for commercial advantage and provided the original work is properly cited. Cannabis is one of the oldest cultivated plants in East Asia, grown for grain and fiber as well as for recreational, medical, and ritual purposes. It is one of the most widely used psychoactive drugs in the world today, but little is known about its early psychoactive use or when plants under cultivation evolved the phenotypical trait of increased specialized compound production. The archaeological evidence for ritualized consumption of cannabis is limited and contentious. Here, we present some of the earliest directly dated and scientifically verified evidence for ritual cannabis smoking. This phytochemical analysis indicates that cannabis plants were burned in wooden braziers during mortuary ceremonies at the Jirzankal Cemetery ca. In prehistoric and early historic Central Eurasia, many plants were used for their secondary compounds, and several are still in prominent use today, notably the opium poppy Papaver somniferum , ephedra Ephedra spp. Plants in the Cannabis genus represent a hybrid complex, with ongoing controversy relating to taxonomy; the lack of taxonomic clarity combined with continual gene flow between wild and domesticated populations has hampered attempts to study the origins and dispersal of this plant 5 , 6. Wild cannabis grows across many of the cooler mountain foothills from the Caucasus to western China, especially in the well-watered habitats of Central Asia. However, cannabinol CBN levels in most wild cannabis plant populations are low, and it remains a largely unanswered question as to when, where, and how the plant was first cultivated for higher psychoactive tetrahydrocannabinol THC production 6. Little is known about the prehistoric use of cannabis outside eastern China, where it was domesticated as an oil-seed crop 7 , 8. While recent well-reported and photographed cannabis macroremains have been recovered from burials in the Turpan Basin ca. Historically, cannabis plants used for ritual and medicinal purposes involved oral ingestion or inhaling the smoke or vapors produced by burning the dried plant. Smoking is defined as the act of inhaling and exhaling the fumes of burning plant material 11 and is today often associated with cigarettes, cigars, and pipes. However, smoking pipes were likely introduced to Eurasia from the New World 12 , and no clear evidence exists for them in Central Asia before the modern era. However, most of the archaeological reports of ancient drug remains were published several decades ago, and re-examination of some of these reports has led to the claims being refuted discussed below. Modern scientific studies are thus needed to corroborate the remaining reports. Here, we investigated residues from archaeological artifacts recovered in the Pamir Mountains Fig. The chemical analysis reveals ancient cannabis burning and suggests high levels of psychoactive chemicals, indicating that people may have been cultivating cannabis and possibly actively selecting for stronger specimens or choosing plant populations with naturally high terpenophenolic secondary metabolites 6. Alternatively, a process of domestication through hybridization between wild and cultivated subspecies may have inadvertently led to stronger chemical-producing plants through human dispersal and subsequent selection 7. A Map of Eurasia showing the location of the Pamir Plateau and the sites mentioned in this study. Ten wooden braziers, containing stones with obvious burning traces, were recently exhumed from eight tombs at the Jirzankal Cemetery also known as Quman Cemetery on the Pamir Plateau Figs. These wooden burners were not associated with any macrobotanical remains, and their immediate use was not clear. The Jirzankal Cemetery dates to approximately years ago 16 and contains material culture that links the occupants to peoples further west in the mountain foothills. The stone rings and burial mounds find parallels in the mortuary practices of contemporaneous populations in the mountains of Central Asia; however, the rows of stones are unique to this area. A Plan view of the Jirzankal Cemetery; B black and white stone strips on the cemetery surface; C circular burial mounds with stone rings. Photo credit: X. We extracted organic material from 10 wooden brazier fragments and 4 burnt stones and analyzed them using gas chromatography—mass spectrometry GC-MS. In our first test, biomarkers of cannabis 19 were found on the internal charred layer of one wooden vessel code: M Subsequently, we analyzed ancient cannabis dating to — BCE; fig. S1 from the Jiayi Cemetery, Turpan to obtain a chemical reference signal Fig. A secondary round of testing, based on the reference signal, identified CBN, which is the oxidative metabolite of THC 20 , on the remaining wooden vessels from the Jirzankal Cemetery. We detected the chemical signature of CBN on all of the burnt residues, except for one, from the inside of the wooden braziers and on two of the stones. As a control, no cannabinoids were found on the samples that we collected from the exteriors of the vessels. The experimental results are summarized in Table 1 see also figs S2 to S15 , and they suggest that cannabis plants were intentionally burned by laying hot stones in the braziers. I and E refer to internal and external surface fragments of the wooden braziers, respectively; S refers to stones inside the wooden braziers. THC is the most potent psychoactive component in cannabis, but it readily decomposes and oxidizes into CBN if exposed to air, light, or heat 20 , The cannabinoids detected on the wooden braziers are mainly CBN, indicating that the burned cannabis plants expressed higher THC levels than typically found in wild plants. A pattern of relatively equivalent amounts of THC and CBD would be expected for wild cannabis plants 20 , 22 , but evident peaks corresponding to cannabinoids of CBD and its degradation products such as cannabielsoin were not detected in the burning residues. Given that the Jirzankal samples contained higher intensity of CBN than the ancient reference sample, there is no reason to expect that we would not see peaks corresponding to CBD if it had been present in the braziers. These results suggest that the cannabis burned by those using the Jirzankal Cemetery might have been physiologically altered through hybridization domestication or a poorly understood expression of genetic plasticity in the plants. The kafiristanica clade is today restricted to mountainous areas around Afghanistan; however, scholars have debated whether it is truly a wild population with higher THC levels or a feral or hybrid population 5. Likewise, stress tests illustrate that some plants express a plastic response of higher THC levels when presented with certain stimuli. Lower temperatures, low nutrient availability, strong light intensity, exposure to ultraviolet light, and photoperiod changes have all been suggested as factors that trigger plastic stress responses in this clade 6. All of these stressors are associated with high elevations. It is possible that high-elevation populations of a naturally higher THC—producing variety were recognized and targeted by people in the Pamir region, possibly even explaining the prominence of ritual sites in the high mountains. Moreover, the content of THC also varies across plant parts, decreasing from the bract, flower, leave, stem, root, and seed in turn 10 , The lack of seeds in the burners may suggest that nonfloral plant parts were burned, or it may suggest that seeds were removed from the floral structures because they do not contain the desired secondary compounds. There is a long history of inquiry surrounding early drug use in Central Eurasia, and much of this research started in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with debates over what the mythical soma of the Rigveda or haoma of the Avesta might have been 1 , The original publications claim that the vessels contained Ephedra and P. However, follow-up studies of the reported cannabis from Gonur have demonstrated that the original identifications were erroneous Despite the fact that these finds are often discussed as if they are actual archaeobotanically preserved remains, the original published photo shows that they are actually impressions of plant parts on a ceramic sherd. In addition, the sherds have been re-examined by specialists, and the round impressions are clearly of broomcorn millet grains Panicum miliaceum , not of Cannabis or Ephedra 7 , Likely due in large part to the single reference in The Histories , historians and archaeologists have linked Central Asian people of the first millennium BCE to cannabis. However, it is highly unlikely that the cannabis plants on the steppe before the first millennium BCE were cultivated, and no evidence for wild populations with high THC levels exists for the steppe. He noted that people would sit in a small tent, and the plants were burned in a bowl with hot stones. Frozen tombs from the Pazyryk culture ca. A small wooden tent frame was recovered with copper containers in one of the Pazyryk kurgans barrow 2 ; the copper containers contained stones with evidence of burning and carbonized morphologically wild hemp seeds 7 , 15 , The original publication also mentions recovery from the kurgan of a leather pouch, which contained cannabis seeds, coriander Coriandrum sativum , and yellow sweet clover Melilotus officinalis Other finds of seeds in vessels from burials in Eastern Europe and Central Asia have been called hemp or cannabis, but without further verification, they have limited credibility 2. Furthermore, according to The Histories , ancient Scythians used the cannabis smoke as a kind of cleaning rite similar to bathing after the burial; however, the smoking revealed both in the Pamirs in the present study and in the Altai Mountains was obviously performed during the burial and may represent a different kind of ritual, perhaps, for example, aimed at communicating with the divine or the deceased. While most of the claims of archaeological cannabis in Central Asia are spurious, as mentioned above 7 , 28 , new discoveries of ritual cannabis use in western China are well documented and scientifically studied. The recent discovery of a cannabis burial shroud, comprising 13 desiccated plants, from the Jiayi Cemetery ca. In addition, dried stems, fruits, and branches were preserved in burials in the Yanghai tombs ca. The wooden bowl shows characteristics of prolonged use as a mortar, indicating that cannabis was pulverized before consumption; however, there is nothing in the tomb to indicate that it was burned or smoked, and the psychoactive plant might have been orally consumed. The lack of evidence for cultivation of hemp plants in this region leaves open the possibility that there were wild varieties with naturally higher phytochemical levels or that the domestication process did not follow conventional models. The burning of cannabis inside the braziers suggests that fire was an important part of the funerary rites at the Jirzankal Cemetery, as it has been in Central Asia from at least the late third millennium BCE, when human cremations are recorded from Kazakhstan 33 , 34 and Xinjiang 35 , The ritual use of fire during funerals continued in Xinjiang and eastern Central Asia with the Zoroastrian practices of the Sogdians, and many Sogdian tombs in western China have evidence of burning Some scholars have suggested that cannabis formed part of Zoroastrian religious and mortuary practices during the first millennium CE 38 — 40 , possibly illustrating a long-term continuity in certain cultural practices. Numerous wooden artifacts were preserved inside the tombs at the Jirzankal Cemetery, such as plates, konghou Chinese harps , and bowls, mostly made from birch trees Betula sp. Among the 70 wooden objects analyzed, only 4 were made from juniper trees presumably Juniperus sabina , and 3 of those were braziers When burned, juniper releases a rich turpentine perfume, which is important for Tibetan Buddhist ceremonies today. As carbonized fragments of juniper wood have been recovered from archaeological sites across Central Asia at ecoclines lower in elevation than those occupied by present-day trees, scholars have suggested that people may have been specifically collecting the wood for its aromatic smoke for millennia The preliminary results of the human bone analysis at the Jirzankal Cemetery show perforations in some skulls and signs of fatal cuts and breaks in several bones 16 ; the excavators interpret these as signs of human sacrifice. While further research is needed to verify these claims, it is possible that a complex set of religious practices occurred at these sites in the first millennium BCE. Other artifacts in these tombs suggest ritual practices—for example, the presence of an angular harp, an important musical instrument in ancient funerals and sacrificial ceremonies. In addition, many of the artifacts from these tombs have clear burn marks on them. We can start to piece together an image of funerary rites that included flames, rhythmic music, and hallucinogen smoke, all intended to guide people into an altered state of mind. At the Jirzankal Cemetery, these cannabis offerings are associated with burials of people of varying social status For instance, eight tombs with wooden braziers were primary or secondary burials, and they consisted of shaft chambers with or without a short passage, which might be related to the size of the tombs and the number of occupants. In general, the large tombs have short passages and were often held for more than two occupants. However, only 1 of the 10 tombs for the immigrant individuals had a mortuary wooden brazier 44 , perhaps indicating that cannabis burning was a local burial practice. Although knowledge of psychoactive cannabis use has long been associated with ancient elites, such as shamans, the mind-altering property of cannabis is a powerful tool in ritualistic and recreational activities. The Pamir Plateau is an essential channel of cultural communication and trade that connected ancient China, Central Asia, and southwest Asia The results of strontium isotope analysis of the human remains from the Jirzankal Cemetery show a high frequency of population movement in this region In addition, glass beads and angular harps, which were typical cultural traits of Western Asia 45 , and silk that was unique in eastern China were also unearthed at the site. These finds further highlight the active cultural exchange taking place on the Pamir Plateau before the establishment of Han governmental regulation in the last century BCE, including taxation and military outposts along the northern routes of the Silk Road. The dispersal of cannabis across the mountain barriers may have played a role in driving the higher THC levels of these specific varieties, with the hybridization of disparate and genetically isolated populations resulting in higher chemical-producing offspring. Likewise, ruderal cannabis plants tend to express high levels of phenotypical plasticity 6 , a trait associated with many crop progenitors. High elevation—related stressors could have helped drive higher THC levels in wild or maintained populations around the cemetery. Ultimately, this study illustrates that the earliest targeted use of cannabis with higher levels of THC originated in western China or the broader Central Asia region, in contrast to the situation in East Asia where early cultivation of cannabis targeted the oily seeds for food and eventually the long stem cells as durable fibers for clothing and cordage. According to the radiocarbon dating results table S1 42 , 44 and the characteristics of the unearthed artifacts 16 , the use of this cemetery dates between and years ago, with material culture traits that parallel those from archaeological sites further west in Central Asia. Large areas of black and white stone strips were created on the landscape using black and white pebbles. From to , the Xinjiang Archaeological Team of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences carried out two archaeological excavation seasons at the site, and the entire cemetery was divided into four zones A, B, C, and D; Fig. Zone A is located in the northeast of the cemetery on the third terrace at an altitude of meters above sea level masl and contains seven tombs, with the black and white stone strips to the north. Zone B is located on the second terrace of the ancient riverbed in the southwest, at an altitude of masl. To one side of the tombs mainly in the northeast is a large area of black and white stone strips Fig. Zone C has eight tombs and is located between zones A and B. Zone D is located northwest of zones A to C and is on the top of the Yardang platform, at an altitude of masl, where the archaeological features are not obvious. Most of the tombs at the Jirzankal Cemetery consist of a shaft chamber covered by circular piles of stones. Both primary and secondary burials have been recovered from the site; and the mortuary goods included a large number of pottery items, stone tools, wooden objects, and textiles mainly wool and no hemp was found , as well as some copper objects, ironware, and glass beads Red dots in A refer to the tombs containing wooden braziers; brazier M was excavated from zone D. In this study, samples from nine sets of wooden brazier fragments and four burnt stones from zone B and one set of brazier samples from zone D were analyzed using GC-MS. Wooden vessel M from zone B was in a highly degraded state when unearthed. There were two wooden braziers excavated from each of tombs M9 and M25; these tombs contained one male occupant and three individuals two male and one female , respectively. For the other six tombs, only one brazier was found in each tomb, and the number of the deceased housed within ranged from one to five. The human bones in tomb M12 showed characteristics of secondary burial. The ancient cannabis plant that we used to obtain the chemical baseline fig. S1 was from tomb M ca. The ancient cannabis remains were desiccated and well preserved; they included morphologically identifiable seeds and inflorescences of cannabis. An approximately mg sample of wood was collected from each fragment of the wooden braziers internal charred surface and external surface and was ground into powder. After filtration, the sample was subjected to GC-MS. The ancient cannabis reference sample was first cut into small pieces and then placed in a centrifuge tube, also extracted twice for 20 min with sonication. All of the extracts were analyzed using the same method. Helium was used as the carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 1. MS was performed in the electron impact mode at 70 eV. Mass spectra interpretations were primarily derived from searching of the National Institute of Standards and Technology database. We thank H. Rao for helpful advice and X. Jiang for sampling assistance. We also thank M. Merlin and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable suggestions to improve the quality of this work. Contributions from Y. Author contributions: Y. All authors participated in the discussions of the results and commented on the manuscript. Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Additional data related to this paper may be requested from the authors. Ancient cannabis plant from tomb M ca. Chromatograms of the burnt stone in the wooden brazier M from the Jirzankal Cemetery. This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article. As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Sci Adv. Find articles by Meng Ren. Find articles by Zihua Tang. Find articles by Xinhua Wu. Find articles by Robert Spengler. Find articles by Hongen Jiang. Find articles by Yimin Yang. Find articles by Nicole Boivin. Email: yiminyang ucas. No claim to original U. Government Works. Open in a new tab. Radiocarbon dates from the Jirzankal Cemetery. Chromatograms of the wooden brazier M from the Jirzankal Cemetery. Similar articles. Add to Collections. Create a new collection. Add to an existing collection. Choose a collection Unable to load your collection due to an error Please try again. Add Cancel. Sample description.

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Marijuana grows openly in many parts of Kyrgyzstan. The Lake Issyk-Kul area of Kyrgyzstan is particularly famous for hashish. The country's climate is exceptionally well suited to cultivation of opium poppies and wild marijuana, producing unusually pure final products from both types of plant. Kyrgyzstan is said to produce even better poppies than does nearby Afghanistan. According to the CIA World Factbook: There is limited illicit cultivation of cannabis and opium poppy for CIS markets and limited government eradication of illicit crops. Kyrgyzstan is a transit point for Southwest Asian narcotics bound for Russia and the rest of Europe and a major consumer of opiates. Domestic production of opium is small-scale, and cannabis and ephedra cultivation is far more prevalent and widely-distributed. Drugs transiting Kyrgyzstan are mainly distributed in the Russian market, especially to Siberia and the Ural region although trafficking to China is already a problem and is expected to grow in the coming years considering opiate and heroin trafficking has become more professional and international and the increasing drugs market in China. Local production is limited and mainly includes cannabis, marihuana and opium. Drugs are still produced in both regions, involving numbers of impoverished people. For instance, in Issyk-Kul region, cannabis is grown on around hectares of land that can be used to produce around 3 thousand tons of marihuana and tons of hashish. The criminal groups have divided the plantations among themselves and mobilize around peasants daily to work on the plantations. The drugs are then trafficked through Kazakhstan to Russia. Likewise, in Osh entire families go to plantations to pick opium poppies. The parents make hashish and marihuana and the children sell it. Basically, the drugs trafficking routes to the North coincide with the trade routes for goods arriving from China. For instance in kg and in — kg of heroin was seized in Kyrgyzstan, that means that only 0. While the use of narcotics and illegal drugs is relatively low, it is a problem. Because of porous borders and close proximity to Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan is a transit country for illegal drugs, which are smuggled to Russia, Europe, and occasionally North America. Department of State\]. All subcategories of drug related crime declined between and , with the exception of smuggling. Drug related crime in Kyrgyzstan reflects the same inverted-U trend seen in other countries in Central Asia. In , the recorded number of drug related crimes was 38 percent lower than its peak in However, the number of offences for the sale of drugs has steadily increased: 46 percent from to Drug Related Crimes in Kyrgyzstan: 1, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 3, in ; 3, in ; 3, in ; 3, in ; 3, in ; 3, in ; 3, in ; 3, in ; 2, in ; 2, in Drug Related Crime Offenders in Kyrgyzstan: 1, in ; 1, in ; 1, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 2, in ; 1, in ; in Issy-kul also has the highest drug related crime prevalence in Central Asia. This pattern conforms to the trend seen in Kyrgyzstan with crime, opiate seizures, and registered drug users concentrated in a few select locations. In , the OSCE estimated that cannabis was growing on 6, ha. In , Kyrgyzstan reports Cannabis is indigenous to the region and Kyrgyz tribes still utilise cannabis for fibre, food and drug purposes. It is thought that the cannabis plant evolved in the mountainous regions that lie between Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, political upheaval caused the modern cannabis trade to thrive. Now that hashish production is illegal in Kyrgyzstan, observers will note the location of likely-looking plants during the day, and at night will return to hand-rub the plants where they grow—sometimes remaining at the arduous task throughout the entire night. Cannabis and hashish are easy to find in almost every part of Kyrgyzstan, although care should always be taken to avoid attracting unwelcome attention from law enforcement. The price, quality and origin of the product available will vary according to location—in the south, Afghan hashish is very common, whereas in the northern regions, domestically-produced cannabis and hashish dominates. The percentage of young people who had used cannabis ten times or more in their lifetime was 1. Within the past 30 days, 2. This indicates that cannabis use is minimal among youth in Kyrgyzstan, with lifetime use prevalence lower than inhalant use. Cannabis use among registered drug users in Kyrgyzstan in registered cannabis users: ; cumulative total percent of all RDUs: 27 percent; prevalence per , population: Estimated annual prevalence of cannabis use as a percentage of the adult population annual prevalence, year of estimate : 6. Percentage of students age 16 who reported using cannabis by frequency; lifetime use: boys: 8. According to Sensi Seeds: Cannabis grows abundantly in the wild in Kyrgyzstan, and laws against cultivation are relatively strict; thus, the vast majority of the harvest each year is taken from wild plants. As well as the Chui and Issyk-Kul, cannabis also grows in Talas and Jalal-Abad provinces; rarely, cases of illicit cannabis cultivation have been reported in other remote regions, usually in locations inaccessible to law enforcement. In total, approximately 40, hectares of wild cannabis is believed to grow in Kyrgyzstan. Typically, wild plants are reported to reach Harvesting of the wild crop typically begins in early August, when resin production has peaked. It is reported that once the buds have been stripped from the branches, the plant continues to produce flowers and can be harvested a second time in late August or early September. This may well be a feature of its ruderalis ancestry, as many growers of modern autoflowering strains have found the same occurs with their own plants. In recent years, would-be harvesters have become increasingly open about their activities, and it is reportedly not uncommon to see whole families out in the fields, from children to the elderly. Women are also increasingly favoured for the task of harvesting, as they are generally less likely to be suspected of wrongdoing by the authorities. Typically, small-scale local dealers purchase cannabis and hashish directly from the villagers that harvested it. The contraband is then sold on to larger regional and international trafficking organisations, which then oversee its journey out of Kyrgyzstan. Occasionally, tensions have been known to rise between the harvesters and the police sent to stamp down on the trade, which have spilled over into violence on several occasions. Firearms are more likely to be shot into the air as a deterrent than used as a weapon, but knife and stick skirmishes can reach intense levels. In , a local counternarcotics official stated that two of his agents had been stabbed during an effort to arrest cannabis harvesters in Issyk-Kul the previous autumn. Following the collapse of the Soviet regime and the resulting economic and political upheaval in the region, unemployment soared and many rural people turned to cannabis as a means of generating much-needed income. In response to the rapid growth of the cannabis trade, Kyrgyz authorities renewed efforts to stamp out the industry. In , it was estimated that 60, hectares of cannabis grew in Kyrgyzstan; that year, Kyrgyz authorities reported eradication of 15, hectares. In , Kyrgyz authorities stated that metric tons of cannabis had been eradicated in the eight months up to and including August in Issyk-Kul alone. In , the largest-ever bust in Kyrgyzstan led to the seizure of kg of hashish. While this figure represents a 21 percent increase from , it is more accurately seen as part of a wider trend of fluctuating volumes of cannabis seizures between and Cannabis seizures peaked in at 3, For Issyk-kul, this represents a six-fold increase over the volume seized in Osh oblast, which had recorded the second highest volume of cannabis seizures in , saw a significant 72 percent decrease. Hashish seizures in Kyrgyzstan, in tons : A 0. In , Kyrgyzstan seized Among registered drug users 8 are reportedly Ephedra addicts, 11 are sedative addicts, 80 are solvent and tranquilizer addicts, and are poly-drug addicts, possibly including synthetic drugs and inhalants. Lifetime drug use was limited to 4. The most frequent drug used was inhalants 5. Within the past 12 months, 2. Percentage of students in Kyrgyzstan who reported synthetic drug use within the past 12 months and 30 days: Used once or more in the past 12 months: inhalants: boys: 2. Percentage of students age 16 who reported never using drugs in their lifetime: any drug use: Conversely, drug abuse tends to be low in regions isolated from the major transportation network and drug trafficking routes, such as Naryn and Issyk-kul. The Kyrgyz capital, Bishkek, located on a major drug trafficking route in the northern Chui oblast, is reported to have the single largest population of registered drug users in the country. In there were registered drug users per , people, of which almost one quarter were heroin users and 41 percent were opium users. The estimated opiate use prevalence in Bishkek is among the highest of any location in the region. Alarmingly, all were injecting opiates. In , 36 people per , population were registered as drug users; out of these more than a quarter were registered as heroin users and 11 percent as opium users. It is estimated that 0. Of these, 96 percent administer the drug through injection. However, within the oblast, almost half of the estimated opiate users are in Osh City which has an estimated prevalence of 0. In contrast to Bishkek where only a quarter of registered drug users have been registered as heroin users, in Osh City, the proportion of heroin users is more than 85 percent. Contrary to common perceptions that places associated with drug trafficking would also have high prevalence of drug use, noticeable exceptions are observed in the region, as for example in the Osh excluding Osh city and the Jalal-Abad oblasts. These are located on what are believed to be major heroin trafficking routes but have reportedly low prevalence rates of opiate use. The same holds true for the corresponding regions of Namangan and Andijon in Uzbekistan. Unlike in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, where the most frequently used opiate is heroin, in Kyrgyzstan the total number of registered heroin and opium users are similar, with the majority of opium users concentrated in the northern Chui oblast and Bishkek City. As in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, injecting is the most frequently used method of administering opiates approximately 96 percent. Kyrgyzstan has launched a progressive needle exchange program to combat drug-related diseases. A report from the s indicated that 70 percent of the 44, crimes reported in the republic in had a connection to drugs in one way or another. The number of drug related crimes increased from in to 2, in Perhaps the most lucrative, and certainly the most problematic, of Kyrgyzstan's exports is narcotics, particularly opium and heroin. Government officials believe that the narcotics industry presents the greatest challenge to the internal security of Kyrgyzstan because of its capacity to destabilize the country. In the Soviet era, the Kyrgyz Republic was a legal producer of opium, with about 2, hectares of land planted to poppies in , the last year before world pressure forced such farms to be closed. At that point, an estimated 16 percent of the world's opium came from Kyrgyzstan. In Kyrgyzstan applied to the World Health Organization for permission to reinstitute the production of medicinal opium as a means of generating desperately needed revenue. Under pressure from the world community, the plan was dropped. Cultivation reported in the study occurred primarily in Chui oblast All the poppy plots were located in house gardens with the largest single cultivation plot measuring only m2 in size. The majority of cultivation was reportedly for personal use rather than for distribution. In , Kyrgyzstan did not report any illicit cultivation of opium poppy or any production facilities. Page Top. This site contains copyrighted material the use of which has not always been authorized by the copyright owner. Such material is made available in an effort to advance understanding of country or topic discussed in the article. This constitutes 'fair use' of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section of the US Copyright Law. In accordance with Title 17 U. Section , the material on this site is distributed without profit. If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond 'fair use', you must obtain permission from the copyright owner. If you are the copyright owner and would like this content removed from factsanddetails. Wild Cannabis in Kyrgyzstan According to Sensi Seeds: Cannabis grows abundantly in the wild in Kyrgyzstan, and laws against cultivation are relatively strict; thus, the vast majority of the harvest each year is taken from wild plants. Drug Production in Kyrgyzstan Perhaps the most lucrative, and certainly the most problematic, of Kyrgyzstan's exports is narcotics, particularly opium and heroin. Last updated April

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