Female Ru
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Female Ru
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Overview of the status of women in Russia
"Russian women" redirects here. Not to be confused with Russian Woman or Russian Women .
Further information: Sports in Russia
^ "Proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments (%) - Data" . data.worldbank.org . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ OECD. "LFS by sex and age - indicators" . stats.oecd.org . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ "Gender Inequality Index" (PDF) . HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS . Retrieved 26 October 2021 .
^ "The Global Gender Gap Report 2020" .
^ Chepalyga, A.L.; Amirkhanov, Kh.A.; Trubikhin, V.M.; Sadchikova, T.A.; Pirogov, A.N.; Taimazov, A.I. (2011). "Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the North Caucasus and the East Europe" . Retrieved 2013-12-18 . Early Paleolithic cultural layers with tools of oldowan type was discovered in East Caucasus (Dagestan, Russia) by Kh. Amirkhanov (2006) [...]
^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency" . Cia.gov . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ Jump up to: a b Pushkareva, Natalia (1997). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. p. 153.
^ Rosslyn, Wendy (2003). Women and Gender in 18th-Century Russia . Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. p. 228.
^ Lamarche- Marrese, Michelle (2002). A Woman's Kingdom: Noblewomen and the Control of Property in Russia, 1700-1861 . New York: Cornell University Press. p. 30 . ISBN 9780801439117 .
^ Lamarche-Marrese, Michelle (2002). A Woman's Kingdom: Noblewomen and the Control of Property in Russia, 1700-1861 . NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 30–31.
^ Bisha, Robin (2002). Russian Women, 1698-1917 Experience and Expression: An Anthology of Sources . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. pp. 162–163.
^ Pushkareva, Natalia (1997). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. p. 89.
^ Pushkareva, Natalia (1997). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 96–97.
^ Pushkareva, Natalia (1997). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. p. 157.
^ Pushkareva, Natalia (1997). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe. p. 95.
^ Pushkareva, Natalia (1997). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. p. 97.
^ Bisha, Robin (2002). Russian Women, 1698-1917 Experience and Expression: An Anthology of Sources . Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
^ Alpern- Engel, Barbara (2004). Women in Russia, 1700-2000 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 50.
^ Pushkareva, Natalia (1997). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. p. 156.
^ Rosslyn, Wendy (2003). Women and Gender in 18th- Century Russia . Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. p. 229.
^ Alpern-Engel, Barbara (2004). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 52.
^ Alpern-Engel, Barbara (2004). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 53.
^ Alpern- Engel, Barbara (2004). Women in Russian History: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Century . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 55.
^ Rosslyn, Wendy (2003). Women and Gender in 18th-Century Russia . Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 228–229.
^ Malysheva, Marina (1992). "Feminism and Bolshevism: two worlds, two ideologies" . In Shirin Rai; Hilary Pilkington; Annie Phizacklea (eds.). Women in the face of change: the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and China . Translated by Pilkington, Hilary. London: Routledge. p. 188 . ISBN 0-415-07540-8 .
^
Ruthchild, R. (2010). Equality & revolution : Women's rights in the Russian Empire, 1905-1917 (Series in Russian and East European studies). Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press.
^ Constitution of the USSR. Moscow: Co-operative Pub. Society of Foreign Workers in the U.S.S.R., Chapter 10, 1936
^ Ilič, Melanie. Women in the Stalin Era . Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001., 2
^ Engel, Barbara Alpern (16 December 1987). "Women in Russia and the Soviet Union". Signs . 12 (4): 781–796. doi : 10.1086/494366 . JSTOR 3174213 . S2CID 144091323 .
^ Goldman, Wendy Z. Women at the Gates: Gender and Industry in Stalin's Russia . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002., 12
^
Schlesinger, Rudolf , ed. (1949). "The Original Family Law of the Russian Soviet Republic". The Family in the USSR . International Library of Sociology. London: Taylor & Francis (published 2013). p. 33ff. ISBN 9781136280788 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . From the Code of Laws concerning the civil Registration of Deaths, Births and Marriages, of oct. 17, 1918
^ Engel, Barbara Alpern; Anastasia Posadskaya-Vanderbeck, and Sona Stephan Hoisington. A Revolution of Their Own: Voices of Women in Soviet History .71
^ The first criminal law code in Soviet Russia differed from Tsarist law on rape: "although the Tsarist law explicitly excluded marital rape, the Soviet law code of 1922 did not." Rule, Wilma (1996). Russian women in politics and society . Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 160 . ISBN 978-0-313-29363-4 . Marital rape was explicitly included in the 1960 code.
^ Jump up to: a b Buckley, Mary. Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989, p.35
^ Jump up to: a b Ilič, Melanie. Women in the Stalin Era . Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001, p.138
^ Jump up to: a b Buckley, Mary. Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989, p.40
^
Joseph, Suad ; Naǧmābādī, Afsāna, eds. (2003). Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics . Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill. p. 140. ISBN 9789004128187 . Retrieved 5 January 2020 . The Soviet revolution attempted to alter many of the patriarchal aspects of family and gender relations by banning the practices of polygamy, and underage and forced marriages, and through setting up women's committees, 'zhensoviets,' which campaigned for women's emancipation and intervened in cases of violence against women.
^ Engel, Barbara Alpern. 1987. "Women in Russia and the Soviet Union". Signs 12 (4). University of Chicago Press: 781–96. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3174213., 788
^ Buckley, Mary. Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989, p.117
^ Heyat, F. 2002. Azeri women in transition. London: Routledge. 89-94.
^ Jump up to: a b Ilič, Melanie. Women in the Stalin Era . Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001., 133
^ Buckley, Mary. Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989, p.121
^ Указ Президиума ВС СССР от 5.08.1954 об отмене уголовной ответственности беременных женщин за производство аборта [ Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council of 05.08.1954 on the decriminalization of abortion for pregnant women ] (in Russian). 5 August 1954 – via Wikisource .
^ Указ Президиума ВС СССР от 23.11.1955 об отмене запрещения абортов [ Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Council of 11.23.1955 on the abolition of the prohibition of abortion ] (in Russian). 23 November 1955 – via Wikisource .
^
Women's Activism in Contemporary Russia , by Linda Racioppi, Katherine O'Sullivan. See pg 31-33.
^
Rural Women in the Soviet Union and Post-Soviet Russia , by Liubov Denisova, pg 80-82.
^ Russian Federation, the Russian Federation's National Report Prepared for the Fourth World Conference on Women. 1994:32.
^ Nikerichev, Andrei (August 16, 2019). "Russia Opens 350 Banned Professions to Women, Stripping Soviet-Era Restrictions" . The Moscow Times .
^ Darmaros, Marina (2011-07-27). "Russian women equal, but only on the surface" . Russia Beyond The Headlines . Retrieved 2017-02-28 .
^ "OHCHR - Russia's list of banned jobs for women violated woman's rights, needs amending – UN experts" . Ohchr.org . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ "Chapter 2. Rights and Freedoms of Man And Citizen - The Constitution of the Russian Federation" . Constitution.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ РФ, ТК (17 August 2014). "Статья 255. Отпуска по беременности и родам" . Trudkod.ru . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ "Приказ Министерства труда и социальной защиты Российской Федерации от 18.07.2019 № 512н ∙ Официальное опубликование правовых актов ∙ Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации" .
^ "OHCHR - Russia's list of banned jobs for women violated woman's rights, needs amending – UN experts" . Ohchr.org . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ "Russia, Philippines have most female business leaders, Japan ranks low" . Reuters . 8 March 2016 . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency" . Cia.gov . Archived from the original on June 13, 2007 . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ "Russian Demographics: The Perfect Storm - YaleGlobal Online" . Yaleglobal.yale.edu . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ Nadezhda, Ilina (March 6, 1999). "Zhenshchina Rossii" (PDF) . Nezavisimaya gazeta . Retrieved December 8, 2021 .
^ Women in Transition, The MONEE Project, CEE/CIS/Baltics, Regional Monitoring Report, no. 6. (Florence, Italy: UNICEF, 1999), 97
^ Johnson, Janet Elise (2016). "Putin's Russia promotes both women and misogyny in politics. Wait, what?" . Washington Post . Retrieved December 17, 2021 .
^ Jump up to: a b Johnson, Janet Elise (2016-09-01). "Fast-Tracked or Boxed In? Informal Politics, Gender, and Women's Representation in Putin's Russia" . Perspectives on Politics . 14 (3): 643–659. doi : 10.1017/S1537592716001109 . ISSN 1537-5927 . S2CID 151710186 .
^ "Дамы в Думе" . www.kommersant.ru (in Russian). 2016-03-08 . Retrieved 2021-12-18 .
^ "Corruption and gender: Women and men affected differently by corruption, but no evidence women or men are less corruptible" . www.unodc.org . Retrieved 2021-12-18 .
^ "Россияне стали хуже относиться к женщинам в политике" . Interfax.ru (in Russian) . Retrieved 2021-12-17 .
^ Nelaeva, Galina; Andreeva, Anna; Drozhashchikh, Nataliia (2020-12-14). "Media Responses to Domestic Violence: Discussing Volodina v. Russia and the Domestic Violence Law" . Problems of Post-Communism . 69 (3): 256–269. doi : 10.1080/10758216.2020.1851141 . ISSN 1075-8216 . S2CID 230541817 .
^ Semukhina, Olga (2020). "The Decriminalization of Domestic Violence in Russia" . Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization . 28 (1): 15–45. ISSN 1940-4603 .
^ " "Я могу тебя убить, и никто меня не остановит": Проблема домашнего насилия в России и реакция государства" (in Russian). 2018-10-25. {{ cite journal }} : Cite journal requires |journal= ( help )
^ Jump up to: a b c "Inside the fight over Russia's domestic violence law" . openDemocracy . Retrieved 2021-12-17 .
^ "Исследование: около 75% пострадавших от насилия в семье - женщины" . ТАСС . Retrieved 2021-12-17 .
^ Jump up to: a b "The Women Combatting Russia's Domestic Violence Epidemic" . Time . Retrieved 2021-11-13 .
^ "Coronavirus: Russia includes jail terms to enforce crackdown" . BBC News . 2020-03-31 . Retrieved 2021-11-13 .
^ "Vladimir Putin Eases Penalties for Domestic Abuse in Russia" . Time . Retrieved 2021-11-13 .
^ "Russian Sports" . Travelchannel.com . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ "Svetlana Khorkina Bio, Stats, and Results" . Olympics at Sports-Reference.com . Archived from the original on 17 April 2020 . Retrieved 16 December 2017 .
^ [1] Archived 2017-08-25 at the Wayback Machine
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Women of Russia .
Women in Russian society have a rich and varied history during numerous regimes throughout the centuries. It is important to note that since Russia is a multicultural society, the experiences of women in Russia vary significantly across ethnic, religious, and social lines. The life of an ethnic Russian woman can be dramatically different from the life of other minority women like Bashkir , Chechen , or Yakuts (Sakha) woman; just as the life of a woman from a lower-class rural family can be different from the life of a woman from an upper-middle-class urban family. Nevertheless, a common historical and political context provides a framework for speaking about women in Russia in general.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the present day territory of Russia was inhabited since prehistoric times: 1.5-million-year-old Oldowan flint tools were discovered in the Dagestan Akusha region of the north Caucasus, demonstrating the presence of early humans in Russia from a very early time. [5] The direct ancestors of Russians are the Eastern Slavs and the Finnic peoples . For most of the 20th century, the history of Russia is essentially that of the Soviet Union . Its fall in 1991 led, as in most of the former communist bloc countries of Eastern Europe, to an economic collapse and other social problems.
Women in Russia are not a monolithic group, because the country itself is very diverse: there are almost 200 national/ethnic groups in Russia (77.7% being Russians - as of 2010 [6] ), and although most of the population is (at least nominally) Christian Orthodox , other religions are present too, such as Islam (approximately 6% - see Islam in Russia ).
Women of eighteenth-century Russia were luckier than their European counterparts in some ways; in others, the life of a Russian woman was more difficult. The eighteenth-century was a time of social and legal changes that began to affect women in a way that they had never before experienced. Peter the Great ruled Russia from 1682 to 1725 and in that time brought about many changes to Russian culture, altering the Orthodox traditions that had been observed since the fall of the Byzantine Empire in the 1450s. The three major social classes present during these reforms experienced changes in varying degrees according to their proximity to the tsar and urban settings where reforms could be more strictly enforced. Large cities underwent the westernization process more rapidly and successfully than the outlying rural villages. Noblewomen, merchant class women, and peasant (serf) women each witnessed Petrine reforms differently. For the lower classes it was not until the end of the eighteenth-century (during the time of Catherine the Great 's reign) that they began to see any changes at all. When these reforms did begin to change women's lives legally, they also helped to expand their abilities socially. The Petrine reforms of this century allowed for more female participation in society, when before they were merely an afterthought as wives and mothers. “The change in women's place in Russian society can be illustrated no better than by the fact that five women ruled the empire, in their own names, for a total of seventy years.” [7]
Arguably the most important legal change that affected women's lives was the Law of Single Inheritance instituted by Peter the Great in 1714. The law was supposed to help the tax revenue for Russia by banning the allowance of noble families to divide their land and wealth among multiple children. This law effectively ended the practice of excluding women from inheriting patrimonial estates. [8]
The Law of Single Inheritance was clarified in the decree of 1725. It sought to address the question of married daughter’ inheritance rights. The law mandated that if a man was survived by unmarried daughters, the eldest girl would inherit his estate, while the remaining sisters would divide his movable property. His married daughters would receive nothing, however, since they would have received dowries at the time they married. [9]
In 1730 Anna Ivanova revoked the Law of Single Inheritance, as it had been a major point of contestation among the nobility since Peter first announced it in 1714. After 1731, property rights were expanded to include inheritance in land property. It also gave women greater power over the estates that had been willed to them, or received in their wedding dowry. [10]
In pre-Petrine centuries the Russian tsars had never been concerned with educating their people, neither the wealthy nor the serfs. Education reforms were a large part of Petrine Westernization; however, it was not until Catherine II's reforms that education rights applied to both men and women of each class. Education for girls occurred mainly in the home because they were focused on learning about their duties as wife and mother rather than getting an education. “The provision of formal education for women began only in 1764 and 1765, when Catherine II established first the Smolny Institute for girls of the nobility in St. Petersburg and then the Novodevichii Institute for the daughters of commoners.” [11]
In the eighteenth-century Petrine reforms and enlightenment ideas brought both welcome and unwelcome changes required of the Russian nobility and aristocratic families. Daughters in well-to-do families were raised in the terem, which was usually a separate building connected to the house by an outside passageway. [12] The terem was used to isolate girls of marriageable age and was intended to keep them "pure" (sexually inexperienced). These girls were raised solely on the prospect of marrying to connect their own family to another aristocratic family. Many rural and urban lower classes houses had no space to separate young women so there was no designated terem to keep them isolated. Women of lower classes had to live and work with their brothers, fathers, and husbands as well as manage all household matters along with them. [13] Marriage customs changed gradually with the new reforms instituted by Peter the Great; average marriageable age increased, especially in the cities among the wealthier tier of people closest to the tsar and in the public eye. “By the end of the eighteenth-century, brides in cities were usually fifteen to eighteen years old, and even in villages young marriages were becoming more and more rare.” [14] Marriage laws were a significant aspect of the Petrine reforms, but had to be corrected or clarified by later tsars because of their frequent ambiguities.
In 1753, a decree was issued to assure that noble families could secure their daughter's inheritance of land by making it a part of the dowry that she would have access to once she was married. [15] The constant change in property rights was an important part of the Petrine reforms that women witnessed. Family as well as marriage disputes often went to the court system because of the confusion about the dowry, and the rights it was supposed to ensure, in the event of a father's death or in disputed divorces. For women, the right to own and sell property was a new experience that only came because of Russia's gradual westernization in the eighteenth century.
Merchant class women also enjoyed newly granted freedoms to own property and manage it; with this new right upper-class women gaine
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