Examples of modern determinations of culture. Реферат. Английский.
💣 👉🏻👉🏻👉🏻 ВСЯ ИНФОРМАЦИЯ ДОСТУПНА ЗДЕСЬ ЖМИТЕ 👈🏻👈🏻👈🏻
Вы можете узнать стоимость помощи в написании студенческой работы.
Помощь в написании работы, которую точно примут!
Похожие работы на - Examples of modern determinations of culture
Скачать Скачать документ
Информация о работе Информация о работе
Скачать Скачать документ
Информация о работе Информация о работе
Скачать Скачать документ
Информация о работе Информация о работе
Скачать Скачать документ
Информация о работе Информация о работе
Скачать Скачать документ
Информация о работе Информация о работе
Скачать Скачать документ
Информация о работе Информация о работе
Нужна качественная работа без плагиата?
Не нашел материал для своей работы?
Поможем написать качественную работу Без плагиата!
Theme of abstract: Examples of modern
determinations of culture
1. Reasoning
of Roy of Dandrad
8. Reasoning
of Ken Richardson
9. Reasoning
of Denyse Jenkins
12. Reasoning
of Elisabeth Thomson
15. Reasoning
of Alexandra Jeffry
17. Reasoning
of Howard Hardener
Consent in what culture it was not and it is not
till today. At deeper consideration of question a yet greater variety is
revealed only. Model in that behalf it is possible to count the book of Kreber
and Klackhon «Culture: critical
review of conceptions and determinations».
Considering more than 150 determinations of culture, authors analyzed the great
number of different ways of conceptions of this term. In final analysis they
came to next determination: "Culture consists of implicit models of
conduct, acquired and transferrable by means of symbols, making distinctive
achievement of human groups, including them embodiment in embodiments; the core
of culture consists of traditional ideas and, especially, from the valued
values added to them; system cultures can be examined, from one side, as
derivatives from activity, and from other - as elements, stipulating further
activity"[1] But
"today only not many from modern anthropologists allude to this
determination. It went out from a fashion, as it seems to too wide (and that is
why, probably, too uncomfortable), used in research aims". The known
cultural researcher Harry Triantis writes: «Culture
is one of those determinations which always are in work of social researchers,
but which are determined by such amount of different ways, that a consensus is
not foreseen» The same position
remains to date. "One conception which prevails in a modern social idea is
conception of culture. Cultural anthropologists and sociologists agree on the
whole, that a human culture is acquired by a man as member of society and she
widely transforms by means of symbolism of language. However there is a consent
in that, how to determine a culture and what functions to add" her.[4] In
the classic review of determinations of culture of Kreber and Klackhon
cultures, meeting in anthropological literature, distinguish five classes of
determinations:
1. Descriptive determinations, when aim to describe
everything or some aspects of human life and activity.
2. Historical determinations which do an accent on
tradition of the pasts.
3. Normative determinations do an accent on rules
which manage activity of group of people. In a difference from descriptive and
historical definitions which imply obvious expression of cultural life,
normative determinations require, that we scrutinized in that activity which we
can look after and made an effort open, that stands after her.
4. Psychological determinations underline
multiplicity of psychological aspects, including such concepts as adaptation,
permission of problems, teaching, habits. For example, a culture allows a group
to adapt to the permanent (repetitive) problems, a culture is learned and the
result of it teaching is establishment in this group of certain habits. This
determination is more wide and includes on implicit (for example, adaptation)
and looked (after for example, habits) are the cultural phenomena.
5. Structural determinations underline a model or
organization of culture. This look is related to the first (descriptive)
category in that does an accent on integrity, totality of picture.[5] Modern
cultural researchers add to another this list, sixth point: "Structural determinations
are required from us, that we glanced for the visible cultural phenomena, to
open as a culture is arranged. A culture is not the list of customs, and is a
computer-integrated model of associate lines. Genetic determinations underline
a source or genesis of culture. Thus a culture consists of adaptation, social
co-operation and creative process, which is distinctive description of human
family".[6] However in the modern theories of culture of such points
counted considerably anymore.
We will consider a few separate, but authoritative
today utterances or reasoning about the concept of "culture".
1. Reasoning of Roy of Dandrad
«One
of the oldest terminology disputes in anthropology is a dispute about a term «culture».
Some problems, seems, and caused by a circumstance that this term has two
senses: culture as process (that is passed, to be studied by subsequent
generations) and culture as the special class of the phenomena (id est the
organized cognition). It is possible to think that these two aspects of term
can coexist, if a process undertakes for determination of maintenance. In such
determination a culture there will be all that is passed to the subsequent
generations through a study. Difficulty in this determination consists of that
many things are passed and not all their anthropologists wish to examine as a
culture. For example, Adipow a complex is trained and widely widespread, but
his most anthropologists usually do not examine him as a culture, so this complex
is indirect, unintentional, unrealized investigation of teaching to other
things. The second strategy is determination of culture as ideas of the special
maintenance. Problem with this determination in that different births of
maintenance are - what from them to consider a culture».
«Presently
there are three basic looks to nature of culture. First is determination of
culture as cognitions, as accumulations of information. According to this look,
a culture accumulates and does not need that, to be divided, if distribution of
cognition is such, that the own incorporated cognition is supported.
Information content in the cultural pool of cognition is very great - even in
simple societies. According to this look, a culture is not highly
computer-integrated, cognitions about that, how to treat illnesses unconnected
with cognition necessary for building of house. According to the second look -
a culture consists of conceptual structures which create central reality of
people, so that he "lives in the that world which imagines to itself»
or according to determination of Shneydor, a culture consists of «elements
which are certain and разделяемы
in concrete society as presenting reality - not simply social reality, and
integral reality of life in which human creatures live and operate».
According to this approach, a culture is not simply
divided, she subjectively is divided, so that everybody supposes that other see
the same things which he sees. In this approach a culture is not especially
accumulated, no more, than grammar is accumulated. The third look to nature of
culture stands between positions "culture as cognition" and
"culture as the constructed reality". This approach interprets a
culture and society almost as consoling realities, something, consisting of institutes,
such as family, market, economy, church, the country etc., id est systems of
norms, qualificatory roles, related to different statuses. For Neydla, for
example, an accumulation takes place, but relatively poorly; the volume of
information which must be trained is very wide, the degree of integration is
important, but problematic. Distinction between these looks consists of
accenting of different functions of values : directive function for approach
centered on "cognition", potential of the systems of values for
approach cantered on "constructing of reality". Although there is
differentiation between symbols and values - some seem foremost presenting,
some - foremost by a directive, some - foremost constructing reality. These
distinctions are indistinct and at times exist only in conceptual scopes.
In obedience to Segall, a culture is the factor of
high order, which cannot have status of independent variation; he is too
difficult, to measure him. Rather a culture must be divided into separate
contextual factors. They include social institutes, such as school, language,
governed, qualificatory interpersonally relations, features of physical
surroundings. General for cultural researchers is that that they push off from
important distinctions in a conduct and aim to find preceding distinctions
which can explain these distinctions. We must find the phenomena which are
important and interesting and only then to search explanation to them. Look to
the culture as on the knot of terms has two investigations. The first consists
of that determination of culture is no more, than general label and cannot have
status of theoretical conception. Talked not about a culture on the whole, and
only about specific variations which explain specific cultural distinctions.
The second investigation consists of that psychological laws and conceptions on
determination must be universal. If certain theoretical statements have
warrants in one culture, but does not have in other, these statements are false
and a theory must be rejected. In this approach an accent is done on cultural
relations in their different aspects into a group. A culture appears as the
organized unit. The study of the isolated variations, taken from an integral
complex by the representatives of this direction, is examined as very doubtful
practice. A culture is perceived as a system, in which a cultural context is
inseparable from a that method which psychological lines and functions are
organized. The systems as such cannot be compared, compared there can be only
parts and properties of the systems. Gustavo Jagod preferred going near a
culture as to the system, but asserted that cultural psychology did not have a
method to transform this conception of culture so that she was suitable for
empiric researches. We also consider so. Till to define the object of cultural
researches, we must decide, what from determinations of culture more acceptable
to us. The complete falling short of between a culture (in objective sense) and
conduct is created difficulty in application to researches of any of three analyzed
approaches. A «culture plugs in itself
the part of surroundings»
produced by a man.
«In
anthropology concept a culture means the and different forms of human
adaptation, and different ways which humanity organizes the life on earth.
People have the system of adaptive aims, many of which have animals, but people
has unique ability to arrive at them by means of the acquired descriptions of
conduct (models of culture), which can be widely varied from one culture to
other. At this level of дискурса
a culture is often determined in relation to foundation of physical and
biological surroundings, to which humanity must adapt oneself to survive. But a
culture can be also certain as creating surroundings for the members of
society. Individuals in a human aggregate do not adapt oneself straight and simply
to physical and biological surroundings, but to surroundings cultural, which
contains facilities of their individual survival and conducts their adaptation
on the already set channels. I use a term culture for denotation of the
organized complex of rules on the basis of which individuals in society must
contact with each other, to think of to itself and about the surroundings and
to behave in relation to by a friend and to the objects of the surroundings.
These rules are not universal and not always it is obeyed them, but they are
acknowledged by all and they limit the number of variations of models of
communication usually, beliefs, values and social conduct in society.. Other
forms of communication are usually limited to the external or internal rules, as
well as models of co-operation between individuals and belief in relation to
the world of external and internal experience».
4. Reasoning of Harry Triadic
A «important
aspect of culture is that she has a structure and that she as unity of
partners. Instruments, houses, laws, values and options, are usually associate,
often by such difficult character, that they form some sort of the constrained
integrity».
A «culture
can be understood as an integral aggregate of artifacts, accumulated by task
force during her historical development. In the aggregate артефакты
accumulated by a group is a culture - can be examined as a specific for form's
sake (for a man) mean of distinction. It is «history
in nowadays». Ability to develop in
this environment and provide her reproduction in subsequent generations makes
the distinctive environment of our kind.. The analysis of psychical functions
of man must be based on his everyday activity… The Historical accumulation of artifacts
and their plugging in activity supposes social nature of human thought.
As asserted in 1929. L. Vigotskiy, formulating the «general
act of human development»,
all facilities of cultural conduct (on my terminology are артефакты)
are on the essence social. They are social also on the origin and development.
Vigotskiy writes, that every function in cultural development of child appears
on the stage twice, in two plans, at first - in social, then - in
psychological, at first between people, as a category of interpsychical, after
into a child, as a category of intrapsychical... but, certainly, a transition
from outside inward transforms a process, changes his structure and functions.
6. Reasoning of Gustavo Jagod
«Values
which we add, for example, to the houses which we live in, self-existence of
houses in a culture, introduces something in a that method which people think
of other aspects of their life. Nomads or not having houses will have other
system of values, touching the events of their everyday life. Disputes in
relation to that, whether produce human artifacts values which are important in
a culture, or a culture creates artifacts, which present the types of value,
which she gives to the events, remind about other long спорах
in psychology. For
example, question about relative importance of surroundings and heredity in
determining of conduct hot and comes into question infinitely. In final
analysis, such disputes are not solvable, because they offer as resisting
reasons factors which in principle are case bound. For our aims the major
aspect of culture is that a culture is relatively the organized system of the
divided values».
R. Rohner examines a culture as organized system of
values, which members of this culture are attributes for personalities and
objects which create a culture. This determination implies that the concept of
culture it is not necessary to limit to that is meant by things for the group
of people. We are necessary to distinguish between the concepts of culture and
frame of society. He determines a culture on the basis of conducts, discovered
in a culture. It conflicts with his determination of culture on the basis of
the divided values, which are given to the events. Social psychologists
discovered repeatedly, that the conducts of individuals not always comported
with the options supported by them, and distinction of Rohner is the parallel
of these opening. However,
in practice not easily to conduct a clear line between a culture and frame of
society, thus determined. Seeming incompatibility it is often possible to
explain between options and conduct, because a few different options, accepted
by an individual simultaneously, all are relevant to the certain conduct. In
like manner it is possible to explain and seeming disparity between the frame
of society and culture which she is built into. For example Christmas walking,
which take place in some crestless countries, most, probably, explainable
rather the attractiveness of the "modern" commercial systems of
exchange by gifts, what by a religious value, given to them by Christians.[17]
Rohner determines society as territorial limited unity of centuries-old
humanity, filled up mainly due to sexual reproduction, and frame of society
organized round a general culture and general. The concept of society, thus,
reflects interlacing of culture and frame of society. [18] Does a culture can
legally examined as reason of social conduct? Determinations of culture, frame
of society and societies which we discuss lean against the analysis of
persuasions and actions of their members. Consequently, our statement, that a
culture can explain a conduct, is tautology; we assert here, that something can
be explained to by itself. However, if we assert, that individualism or some
other specific values can explain some aspect of social conduct, at that rate
we become on more hard soil. We abstracted that we examine as a key element of
culture was supposed, that it can explain other aspects of culture.
8. Reasoning of Ken Richardson
Culture, in sense of forms of production,
instruments and mechanisms, social agreements, symbols, music, dances and other,
there is the remotest, tangible expression of general models to reality.
Confession explains it near likeness between social constructivism’s and
cultural anthropologists. Vigotskiy, no doubt, talked about child's development
as about cultural development. In obedience to his theory a fundamental engine
of development is a reiteration of "collisions" between the model of
reality constructed by a child and that is implicit general in task force which
a child belongs to. The structure of social context of this transmission is
examined as a key to understanding of mental structures which are a result.
9. Reasoning of Denyse Jenkins
«I
take a culture in the context of the symbols and values which personality’s
dynamically create or create again on your own in the process of development
known more or less. A culture, thus, is the orientation of methods of
sensation, thought, and life in the world is their unrealized mean of
experience, interpretation and action. Context culture there is that, through
what every human experience and action - including emotions - must be
interpreted. This look to the culture tries to see her as something shown,
contested and temporal, living space is whereby opened for theorizing about
individual and family changeability, and opinions are eliminated of culture as
about something static, homogeneous and it is necessary divided or even
coherent. I would say that such conception of culture was решающе
important for the comparative study of psychical pathology. She plugs in itself
determination experience and subjectivities, which simultaneously darkened by
limitation of the discussed aspects of problem and taking of her to the general
line from which individuals and groups can deviate and deviate»
often.
A «culture
is an informative pool, and individual, is an active swimmer. From the point of
view of evolutional psychology a culture is the reservoir of different
categories of information, processed by the brain of different ways. An
individual takes away informative units, "edits" them, modifies, and,
most important, uses them. How does an individual use cultural information? We
use a culture in свих
interests, so that she developed, our инклюзивную
adaptability. From here follows also, that a culture is the arena of conflict,
because individuals and factions take away ideological information,
corresponding to their interests, and in the same time try to convince other,
that this ideology serves to all. Not implied here, that human creatures are
conscious hypocrites; rather, we cheat itself (self-deceit is highly-adaptation
in attempts to influence on a conduct other). Information in a cultural source
can be poorly by adaptation (maladaptive). For every this individual, some
socially reported information which a culture consists of serves rather to
interests other, what in the own interests. Other processes can also have the
result of badly by adaptation cultural information, as in those cases, when
ecology changes or, when seeming adaptation strategy has negative long-term
consequences (for example, fishing a network can be successful only during set
time, but essentially she conduces to exhaustion of supplies of fish). That
some cultural information, probably, is badly by adaptation, for some or all
individuals, adjustment of such information»
supposes.
Anthropologists and psychologists jointly
participated in theoretical changes in концептах
of culture and personality. The Central metaphor in actualization of
conceptions of culture is the "outwardly-internal" measuring of
contrast. A culture was examined as providing surroundings for thought and
action of individual from one side, as a system of internal rules, managing
such activity - with other. The external displays of "foods" of
culture contrasted with an internal "cultural informative fund" or
beliefs and values which create them. A conduct which can be directly observed
contrasts with ideas; emotions and systems of value which more hidden from
supervision. For many the realization was general that into the area of
psychological anthropology there was moving of attention for the last twenty
years from "external" to "internal" actualization of
conceptions of culture. I am inclined to think that "internal" side
of culture always was more central for psychological anthropologists, and that
our feeling of change in that behalf is exaggerated. For example, Klayd Klakhon
in an essay about "концепте
of culture", which was first published in 1945, concluded that «basic
стрежень
of culture consisted of traditional ideas (id est historically derivative), and
values" especially related to them. John Waiting also in 1960
characterized a culture as "formulation of general symbolic determinants
of conduct».
«At
the same time research of linguistic socialization and research of development
of the emotionally-meaningful systems is related to more general theme about
that, how the cultural models of self are studied. Anthropological research
into a когнитивной
scientific paradigm provides scopes for the study of this question. As H. Kvin
and D. Holland determine, cultural models divide understanding, which
"build experience, delivering interpretations of this experience and
conclusion about him, and aims for an action».
Research of cultural models used a discourse (taking place
naturally or in the context of interview with a researcher) analysis for the
production of partners of statements, that and metaphors which constitute the
cultural systems of value. One striking opening which took place as a result of
this research - it "thematic" of cultural models from different areas
into one culture. An example is this use of the ideas of «independence»
constructed in a civilized manner in the American theories of parents about a
conduct and development of child. The American parents use general cultural
models for development of specific models of development in babyhood, which
allow adjusting obviously the negative conduct of child to in a civilized
manner valuable. There is difficulty in researches of cultural models, which
originates from distinction between a theory and methods. It was assumed from a
theoretical side, that cultural models had motivational and emotional
measuring. Nevertheless in the concentration on the "internal"
variant of culture, research of cultural models is actually based exceptionally
rather on a discourse analysis, than conducts. A question about that, how an
idea is related to the action, is problematic and even more problematic in the
context of cultural analysis, but exactly on the study of him it is needed to
send future research. Other question: as do cultural models get development in
the process of human development? D. Holand and Dj. Velsner compare the idea of
cultural models to the idea about the «auxiliary
mechanisms» of Vigotskiy suppose
that «prospect
of development of internal forms through social interaction Vigotskiy can be
used for anthropological research of development in a civilized manner the
divided concepts».
Anthropological thought and research of human development suffered a change in
paradigms from the oriented sphere of research of school of Wayting to more
modern researches which focus on the cognition models of culture, accessible
mainly through a language. I supposed that this methodological change had been
by the result of change in that, how a culture and personality transform
simultaneously. Especially
important in that behalf there is a new prospect, developing from cognition
approaches in a few areas, which examine human development as actively acquired
and created knowledge that, how the world «works»,
and that he means for personality, above-ground in him. In the process of this
pragmatic change we get some new powerful facilities for the study of culture,
especially analysis of foods of language, however lose conducts in systematic
supervisions, which characterize more early work in this area. It appears
especially obvious in attitude toward researches which are based fully on an
interview with informants, but it also truly and in regard to research in socio
of linguistic tradition which systematic focuses only on the certain specified
types of vocal events. One of research scopes, which include simultaneously
both a cognition prospect and prospect led, there is an idea of «niche
of development», offered К.
Saper and S. Harknes. Niche of development - it theoretical scope for the study
of the cultural adjusting of microenvironment of child, and she tries to
describe this surroundings from the point of view of child in an order to
understand the processes of development and acquisition of culture. Niche of
development has three main subsystems, which operate jointly as more large
system, and each of which operates concertedly with other properties of culture.
It: (1) physical and social surroundings, a child lives in which; (2) customs
of care of child and education managed in a civilized manner; and (3)
psychology of educators. These
three subsystems have general a function of the mediated experience of development
of individuals into a large culture. Practices are in these subsystems, and
also thematic succession of one stage of development determined in a civilized
manner with the following, provide material from which a child extracts the
social, emotional and cognitive rules of culture, as rules of grammar are
extracted from practice of vocal surroundings. These scopes appeared suitable
for the analysis of many aspects of development of child and life of family in
a cultural context.
12. Reasoning of Elisabeth Thomson
An enormous number of researches of cultural
distinctions in options and beliefs is implicit legal interest to affecting of
"culture" psychological variables. However, it is actually impossible
to differentiate influences of "culture" from influences of
functional XOR in a measuring tool. Further, seems, has large importance
finding out relations between the specific aspects of culture and complexes of
options/of persuasions. Sorrowfully, that a number of cultural researches,
falling under this category, is such limited, and that those which are examined
are characterized or by the two-bit/pl of standards or standards, not
characteristic for industrial societies nowadays and future. It is possible
that this area is studied not enough by reason of disciplinary gap - social
organization is examined mainly in the field of sociology, and setting - in the
field of psychology.
Three types of the phenomena (customs, actions or
artifacts) are the empiric indicators of cultural lines, being classes personal
customs which are so close similar with each other, that they are thought as a
the same custom. Cultures consist exactly of them. Until now customs were
determined without the detailed consideration of question about their
substantial nature, and on this object anthropologists were not able to come to
the consent. Some included artifacts as elements of culture, and other
insisted, that артефакты
are simply material results of cultures. Which an answer was not, it is useful
to remember that артефакты
cannot begin to exist without human actions, and that action often take place
without production of artifacts. Because, at such approach, actions, as seems,
are more fundamental, some insist on that a culture consists of conduct, id
est, actions and utterances. However, other, minority among anthropologists,
look at customs as on ideas. There is some divergence in a question, whether
there are cultural lines from ideas, conduct and artifacts or only from one or
two from transferred. It is entering in an error formulation of problem,
because a conduct (actions of m of utterance) and artifacts are the empiric
phenomena, id est, they can be directly looked after by sense-organs. Ideas,
opposite, it is impossible to look after, but they must destroy from a conduct
and artifacts. We do not look after an idea other. However we are forced to
suppose that a conduct and artifacts are investigation of ideas or something a
like by him into individuals. On this account, it seems useful to think of the
looked after phenomena as about the empiric indicators of customs and to
distinguish among them three main kinds - utterances, actions and artifacts.
Ideas or certain internal forces always are in customs, and they can be
expressed or as utterances or as actions; and sometimes action the result has
artifacts. By additional reason, why interning forces can be examined as more
fundamental, than empiric actions which they product, there is that last,
rather, recur from time to time, what it is been permanent. However most
anthropologists
Похожие работы на - Examples of modern determinations of culture Реферат. Английский.
Реферат по теме Разнообразие служб Интернета
Контрольная работа по теме Порядок проведения экспертизы
Реферат: Herpes Simplex Virus Essay Research Paper Genital
Реферат: Исследование технического состояния аварийных участков набережных р. Иртыш и Омь и методы их реконструкции
Дипломная работа по теме Цифровая электроника и её основные характеристики
Контрольная работа по теме Рассмотрение индивидуальных служебных споров
Сочинение Про Старую Английскую Школу
Доклад по теме Понятие и виды фандрайзинга
Дипломная работа по теме Основы муниципального управления экономикой
Программные Средства Защиты Информации Реферат
Дипломная Работа На Тему Финансовый Анализ Эффективности Оборотных Активов
Регулирование Международной Банковской Системы Курсовая
Контрольная работа по теме Дозвілля як складова часового простору
Курсовая работа по теме Разработка стратегии управления персоналом на предприятии ООО 'Русклимат'
Реферат: The Moder Tragedy Death Of A Salesman
Курсовая работа по теме Анализ и оценка реализации продукции, работ и услуг СПК "Дружба"
Бородино Лермонтов Аргументы К Сочинению
Скачать Контрольные Работы 2 Класс Русский
Чуракова Контрольные Работы По Математике 3
Как Правильно Эссэ Или Эссе
Курсовая работа: Разработка системы управления базой данных строительной фирмы
Реферат: Формирование структуры управления предприятием дорожно-ремонтного хозяйства
Реферат: Гражданская война в Таджикистане